Alleviation of abnormal synaptic neurotransmitter release by cell-permeable form of the truncated SNAP-25 upon transcutaneous delivery

Exocytosis proteins as novel targets for diabetes prevention and/or remediation?

Diabetes remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, affecting an estimated 422 million adults. In the US, it is predicted that one in every three children born as of 2000 will suffer from diabetes in their lifetime. Type 2 diabetes results from combinatorial defects in pancreatic β-cell glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and in peripheral glucose uptake. Both processes, insulin secretion and glucose uptake, are mediated by exocytosis proteins, SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) complexes, Sec1/Munc18 (SM), and double C2-domain protein B (DOC2B). Increasing evidence links deficiencies in these exocytosis proteins to diabetes in rodents and humans. Given this, emerging studies aimed at restoring and/or enhancing cellular levels of certain exocytosis proteins point to promising outcomes in maintaining functional β-cell mass and enhancing insulin sensitivity. In doing so, new evidence also shows that enhancing exocytosis protein levels may promote health span and longevity and may also harbor anti-cancer and anti-Alzheimer's disease capabilities. Herein, we present a comprehensive review of the described capabilities of certain exocytosis proteins and how these might be targeted for improving metabolic dysregulation.

Current status and future directions of botulinum neurotoxins for targeting pain processing

Current evidence suggests that botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) A1 and B1, given locally into peripheral tissues such as skin, muscles, and joints, alter nociceptive processing otherwise initiated by inflammation or nerve injury in animal models and humans. Recent data indicate that such locally delivered BoNTs exert not only local action on sensory afferent terminals but undergo transport to central afferent cell bodies (dorsal root ganglia) and spinal dorsal horn terminals, where they cleave SNAREs and block transmitter release. Increasing evidence supports the possibility of a trans-synaptic movement to alter postsynaptic function in neuronal and possibly non-neuronal (glial) cells. The vast majority of these studies have been conducted on BoNT/A1 and BoNT/B1, the only two pharmaceutically developed variants. However, now over 40 different subtypes of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) have been identified. By combining our existing and rapidly growing understanding of BoNT/A1 and /B1 in altering nociceptive processing with explorations of the specific characteristics of the various toxins from this family, we may be able to discover or design novel, effective, and long-lasting pain therapeutics. This review will focus on our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms whereby BoNTs alter pain processing, and future directions in the development of these agents as pain therapeutics.

RORγt-specific transcriptional interactomic inhibition suppresses autoimmunity associated with TH17 cells

The nuclear hormone receptor retinoic acid-related orphan receptor gamma t (RORγt) is a transcription factor (TF) specific to TH17 cells that produce interleukin (IL)-17 and have been implicated in a wide range of autoimmunity. Here, we developed a novel therapeutic strategy to modulate the functions of RORγt using cell-transducible form of transcription modulation domain of RORγt (tRORγt-TMD), which can be delivered effectively into the nucleus of cells and into the central nerve system (CNS). tRORγt-TMD specifically inhibited TH17-related cytokines induced by RORγt, thereby suppressing the differentiation of naïve T cells into TH17, but not into TH1, TH2, or Treg cells. tRORγt-TMD injected into experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) animal model can be delivered effectively in the splenic CD4(+) T cells and spinal cord-infiltrating CD4(+) T cells, and suppress the functions of TH17 cells. The clinical severity and incidence of EAE were ameliorated by tRORγt-TMD in preventive and therapeutic manner, and significant reduction of both infiltrating CD4(+) IL-17(+) T cells and inflammatory cells into the CNS was observed. As a result, the number of spinal cord demyelination was also reduced after tRORγt-TMD treatment. With the same proof of concept, tTbet-TMD specifically blocking TH1 differentiation improved the clinical incidence of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Therefore, tRORγt-TMD and tTbet-TMD can be novel therapeutic reagents with the natural specificity for the treatment of inflammatory diseases associated with TH17 or TH1. This strategy can be applied to treat various diseases where a specific transcription factor has a key role in pathogenesis.

Treatment of dystonia

Selecting the appropriate treatment for dystonia begins with proper classification of disease based on age, distribution, and underlying etiology. The therapies available for dystonia include oral medications, botulinum toxin, and surgical procedures. Oral medications are generally reserved for generalized and segmental dystonia. Botulinum toxin revolutionized the treatment of focal dystonia when it was introduced for therapeutic purposes in the 1980s. Surgical procedures are available for medication-refractory dystonia, markedly affecting an individual's quality of life.