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Devadoss D, Akkaoui J, Nair M, Lakshmana MK. LRRC25 expression during physiological aging and in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and iPSC-derived neurons. Front Mol Neurosci 2024; 17:1365752. [PMID: 38476461 PMCID: PMC10929014 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2024.1365752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 25 (LRRC25) is relatively a novel protein with no information on its role in neuronal or brain function. A recent study suggested LRRC25 is a potential risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). As a first step to understanding LRRC25's role in the brain and AD, we found LRRC25 is expressed in both cell membranes and cytoplasm in a punctuate appearance in astrocytes, microglia, and neurons in cell lines as well as mouse brain. We also found that LRRC25 expression is both age- and brain region-dependent and that 1-day-old (1D) pups expressed the least amount of LRRC25 protein compared to adult ages. In the APΔE9 mice, immunoblot quantified LRRC25 protein levels were increased by 166% (**p < 0.01) in the cortex (CX) and by 215% (***p < 0.001) in the hippocampus (HP) relative to wild-type (WT) controls. Both the brainstem (BS) and cerebellum (CB) showed no significant alterations. In the 3xTg mice, only CX showed an increase of LRRC25 protein by 91% (*p < 0.05) when compared to WT controls although the increased trend was noted in the other brain regions. In the AD patient brains also LRRC25 protein levels were increased by 153% (***p < 0.001) when compared to normal control (NC) subjects. Finally, LRRC25 expression in the iPSC-derived neurons quantified by immunofluorescence was increased by 181% (**p < 0.01) in AD-derived neurons when compared to NC-derived neurons. Thus increased LRRC25 protein in multiple models of AD suggests that LRRC25 may play a pathogenic role in either Aβ or tau pathology in AD. The mechanism for the increased levels of LRRC25 in AD is unknown at present, but a previous study showed that LRRC25 levels also increase during neonatal hypoxic-ischemia neuronal damage. Based on the evidence that autophagy is highly dysregulated in AD, the increased LRRC25 levels may be due to decreased autophagic degradation of LRRC25. Increased LRRC25 in turn may regulate the stability or activity of key enzymes involved in either Aβ or hyperphosphorylated tau generation and thus may contribute to increased plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Madepalli K. Lakshmana
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
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Chen KS, Noureldein MH, McGinley LM, Hayes JM, Rigan DM, Kwentus JF, Mason SN, Mendelson FE, Savelieff MG, Feldman EL. Human neural stem cells restore spatial memory in a transgenic Alzheimer's disease mouse model by an immunomodulating mechanism. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1306004. [PMID: 38155736 PMCID: PMC10753006 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1306004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Stem cells are a promising therapeutic in Alzheimer's disease (AD) given the complex pathophysiologic pathways involved. However, the therapeutic mechanisms of stem cells remain unclear. Here, we used spatial transcriptomics to elucidate therapeutic mechanisms of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) in an animal model of AD. Methods hNSCs were transplanted into the fimbria fornix of the hippocampus using the 5XFAD mouse model. Spatial memory was assessed by Morris water maze. Amyloid plaque burden was quantified. Spatial transcriptomics was performed and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified both globally and within the hippocampus. Subsequent pathway enrichment and ligand-receptor network analysis was performed. Results hNSC transplantation restored learning curves of 5XFAD mice. However, there were no changes in amyloid plaque burden. Spatial transcriptomics showed 1,061 DEGs normalized in hippocampal subregions. Plaque induced genes in microglia, along with populations of stage 1 and stage 2 disease associated microglia (DAM), were normalized upon hNSC transplantation. Pathologic signaling between hippocampus and DAM was also restored. Discussion hNSCs normalized many dysregulated genes, although this was not mediated by a change in amyloid plaque levels. Rather, hNSCs appear to exert beneficial effects in part by modulating microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and signaling in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S. Chen
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Mohamed H. Noureldein
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Lisa M. McGinley
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - John M. Hayes
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Diana M. Rigan
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Jacquelin F. Kwentus
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Shayna N. Mason
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Faye E. Mendelson
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Masha G. Savelieff
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, United States
| | - Eva L. Feldman
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- NeuroNetwork for Emerging Therapies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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Chen KS, Noureldein MH, McGinley LM, Hayes JM, Rigan DM, Kwentus JF, Mason SN, Mendelson FE, Savelieffd MG, Feldman EL. Human neural stem cells restore spatial memory in a transgenic Alzheimer's disease mouse model by an immunomodulating mechanism. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.01.565161. [PMID: 37961246 PMCID: PMC10635057 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.01.565161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Stem cells are a promising therapeutic in Alzheimer's disease (AD) given the complex pathophysiologic pathways involved. However, the therapeutic mechanisms of stem cells remain unclear. Here, we used spatial transcriptomics to elucidate therapeutic mechanisms of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) in an animal model of AD. METHODS hNSCs were transplanted into the fimbria fornix of the hippocampus using the 5XFAD mouse model. Spatial memory was assessed by Morris water maze. Amyloid plaque burden was quantified. Spatial transcriptomics was performed and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified both globally and within the hippocampus. Subsequent pathway enrichment and ligand-receptor network analysis was performed. RESULTS hNSC transplantation restored learning curves of 5XFAD mice. However, there were no changes in amyloid plaque burden. Spatial transcriptomics showed 1061 DEGs normalized in hippocampal subregions. Plaque induced genes in microglia, along with populations of stage 1 and stage 2 disease associated microglia (DAM), were normalized upon hNSC transplantation. Pathologic signaling between hippocampus and DAM was also restored. DISCUSSION hNSCs normalized many dysregulated genes, although this was not mediated by a change in amyloid plaque levels. Rather, hNSCs appear to exert beneficial effects in part by modulating microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and signaling in AD.
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Sarnowski C, Huan T, Ma Y, Joehanes R, Beiser A, DeCarli CS, Heard-Costa NL, Levy D, Lin H, Liu CT, Liu C, Meigs JB, Satizabal CL, Florez JC, Hivert MF, Dupuis J, De Jager PL, Bennett DA, Seshadri S, Morrison AC. Multi-tissue epigenetic analysis identifies distinct associations underlying insulin resistance and Alzheimer's disease at CPT1A locus. Clin Epigenetics 2023; 15:173. [PMID: 37891690 PMCID: PMC10612362 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-023-01589-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insulin resistance (IR) is a major risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia. The mechanisms by which IR predisposes to AD are not well-understood. Epigenetic studies may help identify molecular signatures of IR associated with AD, thus improving our understanding of the biological and regulatory mechanisms linking IR and AD. METHODS We conducted an epigenome-wide association study of IR, quantified using the homeostatic model assessment of IR (HOMA-IR) and adjusted for body mass index, in 3,167 participants from the Framingham Heart Study (FHS) without type 2 diabetes at the time of blood draw used for methylation measurement. We identified DNA methylation markers associated with IR at the genome-wide level accounting for multiple testing (P < 1.1 × 10-7) and evaluated their association with neurological traits in participants from the FHS (N = 3040) and the Religious Orders Study/Memory and Aging Project (ROSMAP, N = 707). DNA methylation profiles were measured in blood (FHS) or dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (ROSMAP) using the Illumina HumanMethylation450 BeadChip. Linear regressions (ROSMAP) or mixed-effects models accounting for familial relatedness (FHS) adjusted for age, sex, cohort, self-reported race, batch, and cell type proportions were used to assess associations between DNA methylation and neurological traits accounting for multiple testing. RESULTS We confirmed the strong association of blood DNA methylation with IR at three loci (cg17901584-DHCR24, cg17058475-CPT1A, cg00574958-CPT1A, and cg06500161-ABCG1). In FHS, higher levels of blood DNA methylation at cg00574958 and cg17058475 were both associated with lower IR (P = 2.4 × 10-11 and P = 9.0 × 10-8), larger total brain volumes (P = 0.03 and P = 9.7 × 10-4), and smaller log lateral ventricular volumes (P = 0.07 and P = 0.03). In ROSMAP, higher levels of brain DNA methylation at the same two CPT1A markers were associated with greater risk of cognitive impairment (P = 0.005 and P = 0.02) and higher AD-related indices (CERAD score: P = 5 × 10-4 and 0.001; Braak stage: P = 0.004 and P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest potentially distinct epigenetic regulatory mechanisms between peripheral blood and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex tissues underlying IR and AD at CPT1A locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Sarnowski
- Human Genetics Center, Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics, and Environmental Sciences, School of Public Health, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Tianxiao Huan
- Population Sciences Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yiyi Ma
- Center for Translational and Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Roby Joehanes
- Population Sciences Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
| | - Alexa Beiser
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Nancy L Heard-Costa
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Daniel Levy
- Center for Translational and Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
| | - Honghuang Lin
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ching-Ti Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Chunyu Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - James B Meigs
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Claudia L Satizabal
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
- Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Population Health Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Jose C Florez
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Center for Genomic Medicine and Diabetes Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Marie-France Hivert
- Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
- Diabetes Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Josée Dupuis
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, School of Population and Global Health, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Philip L De Jager
- Center for Translational and Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sudha Seshadri
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
- Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Alanna C Morrison
- Human Genetics Center, Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics, and Environmental Sciences, School of Public Health, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Vijh D, Imam MA, Haque MMU, Das S, Islam A, Malik MZ. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics approach reveals the therapeutic mechanism of action of curcumin in Alzheimer disease. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:1205-1220. [PMID: 36652025 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01160-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Curcumin is a natural anti-inflammatory and antioxidant substance which plays a major role in reducing the amyloid plaques formation, which is the major cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Consequently, a methodical approach was used to select the potential protein targets of curcumin in AD through network pharmacology. In this study, through integrative methods, AD targets of curcumin through SwissTargetPrediction database, STITCH database, BindingDB, PharmMapper, Therapeutic Target Database (TTD), Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database were predicted followed by gene enrichment analysis, network construction, network topology, and docking studies. Gene ontology analysis facilitated identification of a list of possible AD targets of curcumin (74 targets genes). The correlation of the obtained targets with AD was analysed by using gene ontology (GO) pathway enrichment analyses and Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). We have incorporated the applied network pharmacological approach to identify key genes. Furthermore, we have performed molecular docking for analysing the mechanism of curcumin. In order to validate the temporospatial expression of key genes in human central nervous system (CNS), we searched the Human Brain Transcriptome (HBT) dataset. We identified top five key genes namely, PPARγ, MAPK1, STAT3, KDR and APP. Further validated the expression profiling of these key genes in publicly available brain data expression profile databases. In context to a valuable addition in the treatment of AD, this study is concluded with novel insights into the therapeutic mechanisms of curcumin, will ease the treatment of AD with the clinical application of curcumin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepanshi Vijh
- Agriculture Plant Biotechnology Lab (ARL-316), University School of Biotechnology, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Sector 16-C, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110078, India
| | - Md Ali Imam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | | | - Subhajit Das
- National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, Maharashtra, India, 411007
| | - Asimul Islam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - Md Zubbair Malik
- Department of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
- Department of Genetics and Bioinformatics, Dasman Diabetes Institute, P.O. Box 1180, 15462, Dasman, Kuwait.
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Mächtel R, Boros FA, Dobert JP, Arnold P, Zunke F. From Lysosomal Storage Disorders to Parkinson's Disease - Challenges and Opportunities. J Mol Biol 2022:167932. [PMID: 36572237 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomes are specialized organelles with an acidic pH that act as recycling hubs for intracellular and extracellular components. They harbour numerous different hydrolytic enzymes to degrade substrates like proteins, peptides, and glycolipids. Reduced catalytic activity of lysosomal enzymes can cause the accumulation of these substrates and loss of lysosomal integrity, resulting in lysosomal dysfunction and lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs). Post-mitotic cells, such as neurons, seem to be highly sensitive to damages induced by lysosomal dysfunction, thus LSDs often manifest with neurological symptoms. Interestingly, some LSDs and Parkinson's disease (PD) share common cellular pathomechanisms, suggesting convergence of aetiology of the two disease types. This is further underlined by genetic associations of several lysosomal genes involved in LSDs with PD. The increasing number of lysosome-associated genetic risk factors for PD makes it necessary to understand functions and interactions of lysosomal proteins/enzymes both in health and disease, thereby holding the potential to identify new therapeutic targets. In this review, we highlight genetic and mechanistic interactions between the complex lysosomal network, LSDs and PD, and elaborate on methodical challenges in lysosomal research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Mächtel
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Clinics Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Jan Philipp Dobert
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Clinics Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Philipp Arnold
- Institute of Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Clinics Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.
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Impairment of the autophagy-lysosomal pathway in Alzheimer's diseases: Pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:1019-1040. [PMID: 35530153 PMCID: PMC9069408 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2022.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by memory loss and cognitive dysfunction. The accumulation of misfolded protein aggregates including amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides and microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT/tau) in neuronal cells are hallmarks of AD. So far, the exact underlying mechanisms for the aetiologies of AD have not been fully understood and the effective treatment for AD is limited. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular catabolic process by which damaged cellular organelles and protein aggregates are degraded via lysosomes. Recently, there is accumulating evidence linking the impairment of the autophagy–lysosomal pathway with AD pathogenesis. Interestingly, the enhancement of autophagy to remove protein aggregates has been proposed as a promising therapeutic strategy for AD. Here, we first summarize the recent genetic, pathological and experimental studies regarding the impairment of the autophagy–lysosomal pathway in AD. We then describe the interplay between the autophagy–lysosomal pathway and two pathological proteins, Aβ and MAPT/tau, in AD. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic strategies and small molecules that target the autophagy–lysosomal pathway for AD treatment both in animal models and in clinical trials. Overall, this article highlights the pivotal functions of the autophagy–lysosomal pathway in AD pathogenesis and potential druggable targets in the autophagy–lysosomal pathway for AD treatment.
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Caponio D, Veverová K, Zhang SQ, Shi L, Wong G, Vyhnalek M, Fang EF. Compromised autophagy and mitophagy in brain ageing and Alzheimer's diseases. AGING BRAIN 2022; 2:100056. [PMID: 36908880 PMCID: PMC9997167 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbas.2022.100056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most persistent and devastating neurodegenerative disorders of old age, and is characterized clinically by an insidious onset and a gradual, progressive deterioration of cognitive abilities, ranging from loss of memory to impairment of judgement and reasoning. Despite years of research, an effective cure is still not available. Autophagy is the cellular 'garbage' clearance system which plays fundamental roles in neurogenesis, neuronal development and activity, and brain health, including memory and learning. A selective sub-type of autophagy is mitophagy which recognizes and degrades damaged or superfluous mitochondria to maintain a healthy and necessary cellular mitochondrial pool. However, emerging evidence from animal models and human samples suggests an age-dependent reduction of autophagy and mitophagy, which are also compromised in AD. Upregulation of autophagy/mitophagy slows down memory loss and ameliorates clinical features in animal models of AD. In this review, we give an overview of autophagy and mitophagy and their link to the progression of AD. We also summarize approaches to upregulate autophagy/mitophagy. We hypothesize that age-dependent compromised autophagy/mitophagy is a cause of brain ageing and a risk factor for AD, while restoration of autophagy/mitophagy to more youthful levels could return the brain to health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenica Caponio
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478 Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Kateřina Veverová
- Memory Clinic, Department of Neurology, Charles University, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Shi-Qi Zhang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478 Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Liu Shi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO)
| | - Garry Wong
- Centre of Reproduction, Development and Aging, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau 999078, China
| | - Martin Vyhnalek
- Memory Clinic, Department of Neurology, Charles University, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Evandro F Fang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478 Lørenskog, Norway.,The Norwegian Centre on Healthy Ageing (NO-Age), Oslo, Norway
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Macroautophagy and Mitophagy in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Therapeutic Interventions. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111625. [PMID: 34829854 PMCID: PMC8615936 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy, a quality control mechanism, is an evolutionarily conserved pathway of lysosomal degradation of protein aggregates, pathogens, and damaged organelles. As part of its vital homeostatic role, macroautophagy deregulation is associated with various human disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. There are several lines of evidence that associate protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction in the etiology of Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases. Macroautophagy has been implicated in the degradation of different protein aggregates such as Aβ, tau, alpha-synuclein (α-syn), and mutant huntingtin (mHtt) and in the clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria. Taking these into consideration, targeting autophagy might represent an effective therapeutic strategy to eliminate protein aggregates and to improve mitochondrial function in these disorders. The present review describes our current understanding on the role of macroautophagy in neurodegenerative disorders and focuses on possible strategies for its therapeutic modulation.
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VPS35 regulates tau phosphorylation and neuropathology in tauopathy. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:6992-7005. [PMID: 31289348 PMCID: PMC6949432 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0453-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35) is a major component of the retromer recognition core complex which regulates intracellular protein sorting and trafficking. Deficiency in VPS35 by altering APP/Aβ metabolism has been linked to late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Here we report that VPS35 is significantly reduced in Progressive Supra-nuclear Palsy and Picks' disease, two distinct primary tauopathies. In vitro studies show that overexpression of VPS35 leads to a reduction of pathological tau in neuronal cells, whereas genetic silencing of VPS35 results in its accumulation. Mechanistically the availability of active cathepsin D mediates the effect of VPS35 on pathological tau accumulation. Moreover, in a relevant transgenic mouse model of tauopathy, down-regulation of VPS35 results in an exacerbation of motor and learning impairments as well as accumulation of pathological tau and loss of synaptic integrity. Taken together, our data identify VPS35 as a novel critical player in tau metabolism and neuropathology, and a new therapeutic target for human tauopathies.
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Zhang Z, Yue P, Lu T, Wang Y, Wei Y, Wei X. Role of lysosomes in physiological activities, diseases, and therapy. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:79. [PMID: 33990205 PMCID: PMC8120021 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01087-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Long known as digestive organelles, lysosomes have now emerged as multifaceted centers responsible for degradation, nutrient sensing, and immunity. Growing evidence also implicates role of lysosome-related mechanisms in pathologic process. In this review, we discuss physiological function of lysosomes and, more importantly, how the homeostasis of lysosomes is disrupted in several diseases, including atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune disorders, pancreatitis, lysosomal storage disorders, and malignant tumors. In atherosclerosis and Gaucher disease, dysfunction of lysosomes changes cytokine secretion from macrophages, partially through inflammasome activation. In neurodegenerative diseases, defect autophagy facilitates accumulation of toxic protein and dysfunctional organelles leading to neuron death. Lysosomal dysfunction has been demonstrated in pathology of pancreatitis. Abnormal autophagy activation or inhibition has been revealed in autoimmune disorders. In tumor microenvironment, malignant phenotypes, including tumorigenesis, growth regulation, invasion, drug resistance, and radiotherapy resistance, of tumor cells and behaviors of tumor-associated macrophages, fibroblasts, dendritic cells, and T cells are also mediated by lysosomes. Based on these findings, a series of therapeutic methods targeting lysosomal proteins and processes have been developed from bench to bedside. In a word, present researches corroborate lysosomes to be pivotal organelles for understanding pathology of atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune disorders, pancreatitis, and lysosomal storage disorders, and malignant tumors and developing novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqi Zhang
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Pengfei Yue
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Tianqi Lu
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Wang
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiawei Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Block 3, Southern Renmin Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan People’s Republic of China
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12
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Bunk J, Prieto Huarcaya S, Drobny A, Dobert JP, Walther L, Rose-John S, Arnold P, Zunke F. Cathepsin D Variants Associated With Neurodegenerative Diseases Show Dysregulated Functionality and Modified α-Synuclein Degradation Properties. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:581805. [PMID: 33681191 PMCID: PMC7928348 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.581805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin D (CTSD) is a lysosomal protease important for the degradation of various substrates, including disease-associated proteins like α-synuclein (a-syn), amyloid precursor protein (APP) and tau, all of which tend to aggregate if not efficiently degraded. Hence, it is not surprising that genetic variants within the CTSD gene have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease (PD, AD), as well as the lysosomal storage disorder neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type-10 (NCL10). Although recent studies have shown the molecular dependence of substrate degradation via CTSD within autophagic pathways, only little is known about the precise role of lysosomal CTSD function in disease development. We here performed biochemical, cellular and structural analyses of eleven disease-causing CTSD point mutations found in genomic sequencing data of patients to understand their role in neurodegeneration. These CTSD variants were analyzed for cellular localization, maturation and enzymatic activity in overexpression analyses. Moreover, for PD-associated mutants, intracellular degradation of a-syn was monitored. In summary, our results suggest that NCL10-associated CTSD variants are significantly impaired in lysosomal maturation and enzymatic activity, whereas the AD- and PD-associated variants seemed rather unaffected, indicating normal maturation, and lysosomal presence. Interestingly, a PD-associated CTSD variant (A239V) exhibited increased enzymatic activity accompanied by enhanced a-syn degradation. By structural analyses of this mutant utilizing molecular dynamics simulation (MDS), we identified a structural change within a loop adjacent to the catalytic center leading to a higher flexibility and potentially accelerated substrate exchange rates. Our data sheds light onto the role of CTSD in disease development and helps to understand the structural regulation of enzymatic function, which could be utilized for targeted CTSD activation. Because of the degradative function of CTSD, this enzyme is especially interesting for therapeutic strategies tackling protein aggregates in neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josina Bunk
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Susy Prieto Huarcaya
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Alice Drobny
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jan Philipp Dobert
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lina Walther
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Stefan Rose-John
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Philipp Arnold
- Institute of Anatomy, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy, Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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13
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Li HD, Bai T, Sandford E, Burmeister M, Guan Y. BaiHui: cross-species brain-specific network built with hundreds of hand-curated datasets. Bioinformatics 2020; 35:2486-2488. [PMID: 30521009 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/bty1001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Functional gene networks, representing how likely two genes work in the same biological process, are important models for studying gene interactions in complex tissues. However, a limitation of the current network-building scheme is the lack of leveraging evidence from multiple model organisms as well as the lack of expert curation and quality control of the input genomic data. RESULTS Here, we present BaiHui, a brain-specific functional gene network built by probabilistically integrating expertly-hand-curated (by reading original publications) heterogeneous and multi-species genomic data in human, mouse and rat brains. To facilitate the use of this network, we deployed a web server through which users can query their genes of interest, visualize the network, gain functional insight from enrichment analysis and download network data. We also illustrated how this network could be used to generate testable hypotheses on disease gene prioritization of brain disorders. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION BaiHui is freely available at: http://guanlab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/BaiHui/. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Dong Li
- Center for Bioinformatics, School of Information Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China.,Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics
| | - Tianjian Bai
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics
| | - Erin Sandford
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Margit Burmeister
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics.,Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Yuanfang Guan
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics
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14
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Romeo MA, Gilardini Montani MS, Gaeta A, D'Orazi G, Faggioni A, Cirone M. HHV-6A infection dysregulates autophagy/UPR interplay increasing beta amyloid production and tau phosphorylation in astrocytoma cells as well as in primary neurons, possible molecular mechanisms linking viral infection to Alzheimer's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1866:165647. [PMID: 31866416 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.165647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
HHV-6A and HHV-6B are neurotropic viruses able to dysregulate autophagy and activate ER stress/UPR in several cell types. The appropriate functioning of these processes is required for cell homeostasis, particularly in post-mitotic cells such as neuronal cells. Interestingly, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are often accompanied by autophagy dysregulation and abnormal UPR activation. This study demonstrated for the first time that HHV-6A infection of astrocytoma cells and primary neurons reduces autophagy, increases Aβ production and activates ER stress/UPR promoting tau protein hyper-phosphorylation. Our results support previous studies suggesting that HHV-6A infection may play a role in AD and unveil the possible underlying molecular mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anele Romeo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Saveria Gilardini Montani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Aurelia Gaeta
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella D'Orazi
- Department of Research, Advanced Diagnostics, and Technological Innovation, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Rome, Italy; Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. D'Annunzio", 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Mara Cirone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy.
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15
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Identification of novel genes associated with longevity in Drosophila melanogaster - a computational approach. Aging (Albany NY) 2019; 11:11244-11267. [PMID: 31794428 PMCID: PMC6932890 DOI: 10.18632/aging.102527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite a growing number of studies on longevity in Drosophila, genetic factors influencing lifespan are still poorly understood. In this paper we propose a conceptually new approach for the identification of novel longevity-associated genes and potential target genes for SNPs in non-coding regions by utilizing the knowledge of co-location of various loci, governed by the three-dimensional architecture of the Drosophila genome. Firstly, we created networks between genes/genomic regions harboring SNPs deemed to be significant in two longevity GWAS summary statistics datasets using intra- and inter-chromosomal interaction frequencies (Hi-C data) as a measure of co-location. These networks were further extended to include regions strongly interacting with previously selected regions. Using various network measures, literature search and additional bioinformatics resources, we investigated the plausibility of genes found to have genuine association with longevity. Several of the newly identified genes were common between the two GWAS datasets and these possessed human orthologs. We also found that the proportion of non-coding SNPs in borders between topologically associated domains is significantly higher than expected by chance. Assuming co-location, we investigated potential target genes for non-coding SNPs. This approach therefore offers a stepping stone to identification of novel genes and SNP targets linked to human longevity.
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16
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Zhu S, Wuolikainen A, Wu J, Öhman A, Wingsle G, Moritz T, Andersen PM, Forsgren L, Trupp M. Targeted Multiple Reaction Monitoring Analysis of CSF Identifies UCHL1 and GPNMB as Candidate Biomarkers for ALS. J Mol Neurosci 2019; 69:643-657. [PMID: 31721001 PMCID: PMC6858390 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-019-01411-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The neurodegenerative diseases amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) share some common molecular deficits including disruption of protein homeostasis leading to disease-specific protein aggregation. While insoluble protein aggregates are the defining pathological confirmation of diagnosis, patient stratification based on early molecular etiologies may identify distinct subgroups within a clinical diagnosis that would respond differently in therapeutic development programs. We are developing targeted multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mass spectrometry methods to rigorously quantify CSF proteins from known disease genes involved in lysosomal, ubiquitin-proteasomal, and autophagy pathways. Analysis of CSF from 21 PD, 21 ALS, and 25 control patients, rigorously matched for gender, age, and age of sample, revealed significant changes in peptide levels between PD, ALS, and control. In patients with PD, levels of two peptides for chromogranin B (CHGB, secretogranin 1) were significantly reduced. In CSF of patients with ALS, levels of two peptides from ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase like protein 1 (UCHL1) and one peptide each for glycoprotein non-metastatic melanoma protein B (GPNMB) and cathepsin D (CTSD) were all increased. Analysis of patients with ALS separated into two groups based on length of survival after CSF sampling revealed that the increases in GPNMB and UCHL1 were specific for short-lived ALS patients. While analysis of additional cohorts is required to validate these candidate biomarkers, this study suggests methods for stratification of ALS patients for clinical trials and identifies targets for drug efficacy measurements during therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaochun Zhu
- Department of Clinical Science, Neurosciences, Umeå University, Building 10, NUS, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Junfang Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Öhman
- Department of Clinical Science, Neurosciences, Umeå University, Building 10, NUS, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Wingsle
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Moritz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Peter M Andersen
- Department of Clinical Science, Neurosciences, Umeå University, Building 10, NUS, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Lars Forsgren
- Department of Clinical Science, Neurosciences, Umeå University, Building 10, NUS, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Miles Trupp
- Department of Clinical Science, Neurosciences, Umeå University, Building 10, NUS, Umeå, Sweden.
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17
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Hofmann JW, Seeley WW, Huang EJ. RNA Binding Proteins and the Pathogenesis of Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2018; 14:469-495. [PMID: 30355151 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia is a group of early onset dementia syndromes linked to underlying frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) pathology that can be classified based on the formation of abnormal protein aggregates involving tau and two RNA binding proteins, TDP-43 and FUS. Although elucidation of the mechanisms leading to FTLD pathology is in progress, recent advances in genetics and neuropathology indicate that a majority of FTLD cases with proteinopathy involving RNA binding proteins show highly congruent genotype-phenotype correlations. Specifically, recent studies have uncovered the unique properties of the low-complexity domains in RNA binding proteins that can facilitate liquid-liquid phase separation in the formation of membraneless organelles. Furthermore, there is compelling evidence that mutations in FTLD genes lead to dysfunction in diverse cellular pathways that converge on the endolysosomal pathway, autophagy, and neuroinflammation. Together, these results provide key mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets of FTLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Hofmann
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, USA;
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, USA; .,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94148, USA
| | - Eric J Huang
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, USA; .,Pathology Service 113B, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California 94121, USA
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18
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Uddin MS, Stachowiak A, Mamun AA, Tzvetkov NT, Takeda S, Atanasov AG, Bergantin LB, Abdel-Daim MM, Stankiewicz AM. Autophagy and Alzheimer's Disease: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Implications. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:04. [PMID: 29441009 PMCID: PMC5797541 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of progressive dementia in the elderly. It is characterized by a progressive and irreversible loss of cognitive abilities and formation of senile plaques, composed mainly of amyloid β (Aβ), and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), composed of tau protein, in the hippocampus and cortex of afflicted humans. In brains of AD patients the metabolism of Aβ is dysregulated, which leads to the accumulation and aggregation of Aβ. Metabolism of Aβ and tau proteins is crucially influenced by autophagy. Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent, homeostatic process, in which organelles and proteins are degraded and recycled into energy. Thus, dysfunction of autophagy is suggested to lead to the accretion of noxious proteins in the AD brain. In the present review, we describe the process of autophagy and its importance in AD. Additionally, we discuss mechanisms and genes linking autophagy and AD, i.e., the mTOR pathway, neuroinflammation, endocannabinoid system, ATG7, BCL2, BECN1, CDK5, CLU, CTSD, FOXO1, GFAP, ITPR1, MAPT, PSEN1, SNCA, UBQLN1, and UCHL1. We also present pharmacological agents acting via modulation of autophagy that may show promise in AD therapy. This review updates our knowledge on autophagy mechanisms proposing novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Anna Stachowiak
- Department of Experimental Embryology, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, Magdalenka, Poland
| | | | - Nikolay T Tzvetkov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemical Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular Biology "Roumen Tsanev", Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Shinya Takeda
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Tottori University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Tottori, Japan
| | - Atanas G Atanasov
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, Magdalenka, Poland.,Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leandro B Bergantin
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mohamed M Abdel-Daim
- Department of Pharmacology, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt.,Department of Ophthalmology and Micro-technology, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Adrian M Stankiewicz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, Magdalenka, Poland
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19
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Haure-Mirande JV, Audrain M, Fanutza T, Kim SH, Klein WL, Glabe C, Readhead B, Dudley JT, Blitzer RD, Wang M, Zhang B, Schadt EE, Gandy S, Ehrlich ME. Deficiency of TYROBP, an adapter protein for TREM2 and CR3 receptors, is neuroprotective in a mouse model of early Alzheimer's pathology. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 134:769-788. [PMID: 28612290 PMCID: PMC5645450 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-017-1737-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Conventional genetic approaches and computational strategies have converged on immune-inflammatory pathways as key events in the pathogenesis of late onset sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD). Mutations and/or differential expression of microglial specific receptors such as TREM2, CD33, and CR3 have been associated with strong increased risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). DAP12 (DNAX-activating protein 12)/TYROBP, a molecule localized to microglia, is a direct partner/adapter for TREM2, CD33, and CR3. We and others have previously shown that TYROBP expression is increased in AD patients and in mouse models. Moreover, missense mutations in the coding region of TYROBP have recently been identified in some AD patients. These lines of evidence, along with computational analysis of LOAD brain gene expression, point to DAP12/TYROBP as a potential hub or driver protein in the pathogenesis of AD. Using a comprehensive panel of biochemical, physiological, behavioral, and transcriptomic assays, we evaluated in a mouse model the role of TYROBP in early stage AD. We crossed an Alzheimer’s model mutant APPKM670/671NL/PSEN1Δexon9(APP/PSEN1) mouse model with Tyrobp−/− mice to generate AD model mice deficient or null for TYROBP (APP/PSEN1; Tyrobp+/− or APP/PSEN1; Tyrobp−/−). While we observed relatively minor effects of TYROBP deficiency on steady-state levels of amyloid-β peptides, there was an effect of Tyrobp deficiency on the morphology of amyloid deposits resembling that reported by others for Trem2−/− mice. We identified modulatory effects of TYROBP deficiency on the level of phosphorylation of TAU that was accompanied by a reduction in the severity of neuritic dystrophy. TYROBP deficiency also altered the expression of several AD related genes, including Cd33. Electrophysiological abnormalities and learning behavior deficits associated with APP/PSEN1 transgenes were greatly attenuated on a Tyrobp-null background. Some modulatory effects of TYROBP on Alzheimer’s-related genes were only apparent on a background of mice with cerebral amyloidosis due to overexpression of mutant APP/PSEN1. These results suggest that reduction of TYROBP gene expression and/or protein levels could represent an immune-inflammatory therapeutic opportunity for modulating early stage LOAD, potentially leading to slowing or arresting the progression to full-blown clinical and pathological LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mickael Audrain
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Tomas Fanutza
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Soong Ho Kim
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - William L Klein
- Department of Biochemistry, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Charles Glabe
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Ben Readhead
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Joel T Dudley
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Robert D Blitzer
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Minghui Wang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Eric E Schadt
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Sam Gandy
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Michelle E Ehrlich
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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20
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Xi J, Yang X, Zhao Q, Zheng J, An R, Tian S, Huang H, Hu F, Ning P, Xu Y. Absence of association of the Ala58Val (rs17571) CTSD gene variant with Parkinson's disease or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in a Han Chinese population. Neurosci Lett 2017; 662:181-184. [PMID: 28917980 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are neurodegenerative diseases that may share genetic risk factors. The exon variant Aal58Val (rs17571) in CTSD was recently associated with AD, leading us to examine whether it also affects risk of ALS and PD. The rs17571 variant was genotyped using the ligase detection reaction in 569 Han Chinese patients with PD, 301 patients with ALS, and healthy controls age- and gender-matched to each patient group. The frequencies of genotypes and alleles were similar between each disease group and its respective control group. Similar results were obtained when patients were stratified by gender, age at disease onset or type of symptoms at disease onset. These results suggest that the CTSD rs17571 variant may not be associated with risk of ALS or PD in Han Chinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xi
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Xinglong Yang
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunan Province, 650032, PR China.
| | - Quanzhen Zhao
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Jinhua Zheng
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Ran An
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Sijia Tian
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Hongyan Huang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Fayunn Hu
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Pingping Ning
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China
| | - Yanming Xu
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, 610041, PR China.
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21
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Abstract
The discovery that heterozygous and homozygous mutations in the gene encoding progranulin are causally linked to frontotemporal dementia and lysosomal storage disease, respectively, reveals previously unrecognized roles of the progranulin protein in regulating lysosome biogenesis and function. Given the importance of lysosomes in cellular homeostasis, it is not surprising that progranulin deficiency has pleiotropic effects on neural circuit development and maintenance, stress response, innate immunity and ageing. This Progress article reviews recent advances in progranulin biology emphasizing its roles in lysosomal function and brain innate immunity, and outlines future avenues of investigation that may lead to new therapeutic approaches for neurodegeneration.
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22
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TFEB Overexpression in the P301S Model of Tauopathy Mitigates Increased PHF1 Levels and Lipofuscin Puncta and Rescues Memory Deficits. eNeuro 2016; 3:eN-NWR-0042-16. [PMID: 27257626 PMCID: PMC4876487 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0042-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription factor EB (TFEB) was recently shown to be a master regulator of autophagy lysosome pathway. Here, we successfully generated and characterized transgenic mice overexpressing flag-TFEB. Enhanced autophagy in the flag-TFEB transgenic mice was confirmed by an increase in the cellular autophagy markers, as determined by both immunoblots and transmission electron microscopy. Surprisingly, in the flag-TFEB mice we observed increased activity of senescence-associated β-galactosidase by ∼66% of neurons in the cortex (p < 0.001) and 73% of neurons in the hippocampus (p < 0.001). More importantly, flag-TFEB expression remarkably reduced the levels of paired-helical filament (PHF)-tau from 372% in the P301S model of tauopathy to 171% (p < 0.001) in the cortex, and from 436% to 212% (p < 0.001) in the hippocampus. Significantly, reduced levels of NeuN in the cortex (38%, p < 0.001) and hippocampus (25%, p < 0.05) of P301S mice were almost completely restored to WT levels in the P301S/flag-TFEB double-transgenic mice. Also, levels of spinophilin in both the cortex (p < 0.001) and hippocampus (p < 0.001) were restored almost to WT levels. Most importantly, the age-associated lipofuscin granules, which are generally presumed to be nondegradable, were reduced by 57% (p < 0.001) in the cortex and by 55% (p < 0.001) in the hippocampus in the double-transgenic mice. Finally, TFEB overexpression in the P301S mice markedly reversed learning deficits in terms of spatial memory (Barnes maze), as well as working and reference memories (T maze). These data suggest that the overexpression of TFEB can reliably enhance autophagy in vivo, reduce levels of PHF-tau, and thereby reverse the deposition of lipofuscin granules and memory deficits.
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Ma SL, Tang NLS, Lam LCW. Association of gene expression and methylation of UQCRC1 to the predisposition of Alzheimer's disease in a Chinese population. J Psychiatr Res 2016; 76:143-7. [PMID: 26943237 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
DNA methylation is an important epigenetic mechanism for gene regulation and it is well established there is association between aging and DNA methylation. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, characterized by amyloid plaque deposition and formation of neurofibrillary tangles. In this study, we examined the correlation between DNA methylation and gene expression of seven genes including CTSB, CTSD, DDT, TSC1, NRD1, UQCRC1 and NDUFA6 and its effect on the risk of AD in a Chinese population. Our finding showed significantly increased gene expression of these 7 genes in AD patients (2.7-fold-8.6-fold). UQCRC1 was highly methylated in AD patients and there was strong positive correlation between gene expression level and methylation status of UQCRC1 (p < 0.001). Further analysis showed the methylation status of UQCRC1 was significantly associated with gene expression of NRD1, DDT, CTSB and CTSD, suggested the regulatory mechanism on these 4 genes by UQCRC1. Our study further suggested the role of methylation in gene regulation and the role in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suk Ling Ma
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China.
| | - Nelson Leung Sang Tang
- Functional Genomics and Biostatistical Computing Laboratory, Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Department of Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Laboratory of Genetics of Disease Susceptibility, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China
| | - Linda Chiu Wa Lam
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China
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Vidoni C, Follo C, Savino M, Melone MAB, Isidoro C. The Role of Cathepsin D in the Pathogenesis of Human Neurodegenerative Disorders. Med Res Rev 2016; 36:845-70. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Vidoni
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Health Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro,”; Novara Italy
| | - Carlo Follo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Health Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro,”; Novara Italy
| | - Miriam Savino
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Health Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro,”; Novara Italy
| | - Mariarosa A. B. Melone
- Division of Neurology, Department of Clinic and Experimental Medicine and Surgery; Second University of Naples; Naples Italy
- InterUniversity Center for Research in Neurosciences; Second University of Naples; Naples Italy
| | - Ciro Isidoro
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Health Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro,”; Novara Italy
- InterUniversity Center for Research in Neurosciences; Second University of Naples; Naples Italy
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Neuronal-Targeted TFEB Accelerates Lysosomal Degradation of APP, Reducing Aβ Generation and Amyloid Plaque Pathogenesis. J Neurosci 2015; 35:12137-51. [PMID: 26338325 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0705-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED In AD, an imbalance between Aβ production and removal drives elevated brain Aβ levels and eventual amyloid plaque deposition. APP undergoes nonamyloidogenic processing via α-cleavage at the plasma membrane, amyloidogenic β- and γ-cleavage within endosomes to generate Aβ, or lysosomal degradation in neurons. Considering multiple reports implicating impaired lysosome function as a driver of increased amyloidogenic processing of APP, we explored the efficacy of targeting transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of lysosomal pathways, to reduce Aβ levels. CMV promoter-driven TFEB, transduced via stereotactic hippocampal injections of adeno-associated virus particles in APP/PS1 mice, localized primarily to neuronal nuclei and upregulated lysosome biogenesis. This resulted in reduction of APP protein, the α and β C-terminal APP fragments (CTFs), and in the steady-state Aβ levels in the brain interstitial fluid. In aged mice, total Aβ levels and amyloid plaque load were selectively reduced in the TFEB-transduced hippocampi. TFEB transfection in N2a cells stably expressing APP695, stimulated lysosome biogenesis, reduced steady-state levels of APP and α- and β-CTFs, and attenuated Aβ generation by accelerating flux through the endosome-lysosome pathway. Cycloheximide chase assays revealed a shortening of APP half-life with exogenous TFEB expression, which was prevented by concomitant inhibition of lysosomal acidification. These data indicate that TFEB enhances flux through lysosomal degradative pathways to induce APP degradation and reduce Aβ generation. Activation of TFEB in neurons is an effective strategy to attenuate Aβ generation and attenuate amyloid plaque deposition in AD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A key driver for AD pathogenesis is the net balance between production and clearance of Aβ, the major component of amyloid plaques. Here we demonstrate that lysosomal degradation of holo-APP influences Aβ production by limiting the availability of APP for amyloidogenic processing. Using viral gene transfer of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of lysosome biogenesis in neurons of APP/PS1 mice, steady-state levels of APP were reduced, resulting in decreased interstitial fluid Aβ levels and attenuated amyloid deposits. These effects were caused by accelerated lysosomal degradation of endocytosed APP, reflected by reduced APP half-life and steady-state levels in TFEB-expressing cells, with resultant decrease in Aβ production and release. Additional studies are needed to explore the therapeutic potential of this approach.
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Adams HHH, Hilal S, Schwingenschuh P, Wittfeld K, van der Lee SJ, DeCarli C, Vernooij MW, Katschnig-Winter P, Habes M, Chen C, Seshadri S, van Duijn CM, Ikram MK, Grabe HJ, Schmidt R, Ikram MA. A priori collaboration in population imaging: The Uniform Neuro-Imaging of Virchow-Robin Spaces Enlargement consortium. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA: DIAGNOSIS, ASSESSMENT & DISEASE MONITORING 2015; 1:513-20. [PMID: 27239529 PMCID: PMC4879491 DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Virchow-Robin spaces (VRS), or perivascular spaces, are compartments of interstitial fluid enclosing cerebral blood vessels and are potential imaging markers of various underlying brain pathologies. Despite a growing interest in the study of enlarged VRS, the heterogeneity in rating and quantification methods combined with small sample sizes have so far hampered advancement in the field. Methods The Uniform Neuro-Imaging of Virchow-Robin Spaces Enlargement (UNIVRSE) consortium was established with primary aims to harmonize rating and analysis (www.uconsortium.org). The UNIVRSE consortium brings together 13 (sub)cohorts from five countries, totaling 16,000 subjects and over 25,000 scans. Eight different magnetic resonance imaging protocols were used in the consortium. Results VRS rating was harmonized using a validated protocol that was developed by the two founding members, with high reliability independent of scanner type, rater experience, or concomitant brain pathology. Initial analyses revealed risk factors for enlarged VRS including increased age, sex, high blood pressure, brain infarcts, and white matter lesions, but this varied by brain region. Discussion Early collaborative efforts between cohort studies with respect to data harmonization and joint analyses can advance the field of population (neuro)imaging. The UNIVRSE consortium will focus efforts on other potential correlates of enlarged VRS, including genetics, cognition, stroke, and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hieab H H Adams
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Radiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Saima Hilal
- Department of Ophthalmology, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Memory Aging and Cognition Center, National University Health System, Singapore
| | | | - Katharina Wittfeld
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Site Rostock/ Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sven J van der Lee
- Genetic Epidemiology Unit, Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Charles DeCarli
- Imaging of Dementia and Aging (IDeA) Laboratory, Department of Neurology and Center for Neuroscience, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Meike W Vernooij
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Radiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Mohamad Habes
- Institute for Community Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Section of Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Christopher Chen
- Memory Aging and Cognition Center, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Sudha Seshadri
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA
| | - Cornelia M van Duijn
- Genetic Epidemiology Unit, Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Kamran Ikram
- Department of Ophthalmology, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Memory Aging and Cognition Center, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Hans J Grabe
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Site Rostock/ Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Reinhold Schmidt
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - M Arfan Ikram
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Radiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Enhancing astrocytic lysosome biogenesis facilitates Aβ clearance and attenuates amyloid plaque pathogenesis. J Neurosci 2014; 34:9607-20. [PMID: 25031402 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3788-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), impaired Aβ removal contributes to elevated extracellular Aβ levels that drive amyloid plaque pathogenesis. Extracellular proteolysis, export across the blood-brain barrier, and cellular uptake facilitate physiologic Aβ clearance. Astrocytes can take up and degrade Aβ, but it remains unclear whether this function is insufficient in AD or can be enhanced to accelerate Aβ removal. Additionally, age-related dysfunction of lysosomes, the major degradative organelles wherein Aβ localizes after uptake, has been implicated in amyloid plaque pathogenesis. We tested the hypothesis that enhancing lysosomal function in astrocytes with transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of lysosome biogenesis, would promote Aβ uptake and catabolism and attenuate plaque pathogenesis. Exogenous TFEB localized to the nucleus with transcriptional induction of lysosomal biogenesis and function in vitro. This resulted in significantly accelerated uptake of exogenously applied Aβ42, with increased localization to and degradation within lysosomes in C17.2 cells and primary astrocytes, indicating that TFEB is sufficient to coordinately enhance uptake, trafficking, and degradation of Aβ. Stereotactic injection of adeno-associated viral particles carrying TFEB driven by a glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter was used to achieve astrocyte-specific expression in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 transgenic mice. Exogenous TFEB localized to astrocyte nuclei and enhanced lysosome function, resulting in reduced Aβ levels and shortened half-life in the brain interstitial fluid and reduced amyloid plaque load in the hippocampus compared with control virus-injected mice. Therefore, activation of TFEB in astrocytes is an effective strategy to restore adequate Aβ removal and counter amyloid plaque pathogenesis in AD.
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Zawilla NH, Taha FM, Kishk NA, Farahat SA, Farghaly M, Hussein M. Occupational exposure to aluminum and its amyloidogenic link with cognitive functions. J Inorg Biochem 2014; 139:57-64. [PMID: 24973993 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
As many other metals, aluminum is a widely recognized neurotoxicant and its link with neurodegenerative disorders has been the subject of scientific debate. One proposal focuses on amyloid β deposition (amyloidogenesis) as the key player in triggering neuronal dysfunction the so-called amyloid cascade hypothesis. We undertook this study first to investigate the cognition status of workers exposed to Al dust in an Al factory in Southern Cairo, second, to evaluate serum amyloid precursor protein (APP) and cathepsin D (CD) enzyme activity to study the possible role of Al in amyloidogenesis, and finally to explore the relation between these potential biomarkers and cognitive functions. The study was conducted on 54 exposed workers and 51 matched controls. They were subjected to questionnaire, neurological examination and a cognitive test battery, Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination - Revised (ACE-R). Serum Al, APP and CD enzyme activity were measured. A significant increase of serum Al was found in the exposed workers with an associated increase in serum APP and decrement in CD activity. The exposed workers displayed poor performance on the ACE-R test. No significant correlation was detected between ACE-R test total score and either APP or CD activity. We concluded that occupational exposure to Al is associated with cognitive impairment. The effect of occupational Al exposure on the serum levels of APP and CD activity may be regarded as a possible mechanism of Al in amyloidogenesis. However, our findings do not support the utility of serum APP and CD activity as screening markers for early or preclinical cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- N H Zawilla
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - F M Taha
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt.
| | - N A Kishk
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - S A Farahat
- Department of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - M Farghaly
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - M Hussein
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Bani-suef University, Egypt
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Bouter Y, Kacprowski T, Weissmann R, Dietrich K, Borgers H, Brauß A, Sperling C, Wirths O, Albrecht M, Jensen LR, Kuss AW, Bayer TA. Deciphering the molecular profile of plaques, memory decline and neuron loss in two mouse models for Alzheimer's disease by deep sequencing. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:75. [PMID: 24795628 PMCID: PMC3997018 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the central research questions on the etiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the elucidation of the molecular signatures triggered by the amyloid cascade of pathological events. Next-generation sequencing allows the identification of genes involved in disease processes in an unbiased manner. We have combined this technique with the analysis of two AD mouse models: (1) The 5XFAD model develops early plaque formation, intraneuronal Aβ aggregation, neuron loss, and behavioral deficits. (2) The Tg4–42 model expresses N-truncated Aβ4–42 and develops neuron loss and behavioral deficits albeit without plaque formation. Our results show that learning and memory deficits in the Morris water maze and fear conditioning tasks in Tg4–42 mice at 12 months of age are similar to the deficits in 5XFAD animals. This suggested that comparative gene expression analysis between the models would allow the dissection of plaque-related and -unrelated disease relevant factors. Using deep sequencing differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and subsequently verified by quantitative PCR. Nineteen DEGs were identified in pre-symptomatic young 5XFAD mice, and none in young Tg4–42 mice. In the aged cohort, 131 DEGs were found in 5XFAD and 56 DEGs in Tg4–42 mice. Many of the DEGs specific to the 5XFAD model belong to neuroinflammatory processes typically associated with plaques. Interestingly, 36 DEGs were identified in both mouse models indicating common disease pathways associated with behavioral deficits and neuron loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Bouter
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
| | - Tim Kacprowski
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biometrics and Medical Informatics, University Medicine Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany ; Department of Functional Genomics, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Robert Weissmann
- Human Molecular Genetics, Department for Human Genetics of the Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Katharina Dietrich
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
| | - Henning Borgers
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
| | - Andreas Brauß
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
| | - Christian Sperling
- Human Molecular Genetics, Department for Human Genetics of the Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Oliver Wirths
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
| | - Mario Albrecht
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biometrics and Medical Informatics, University Medicine Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany ; Institute for Knowledge Discovery, Graz University of Technology , Graz , Austria
| | - Lars R Jensen
- Human Molecular Genetics, Department for Human Genetics of the Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Andreas W Kuss
- Human Molecular Genetics, Department for Human Genetics of the Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Human Genetics, University Medicine Greifswald, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University Greifswald , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Thomas A Bayer
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Georg-August-University Goettingen, University Medicine Goettingen , Goettingen , Germany
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Rahmanian SD, Wood KL, Lin S, King MA, Horne A, Yang S, Wu HM, Diaz PT. Gender Differences in Pulmonary Function, Respiratory Symptoms, and Macrophage Proteomics among HIV-Infected Smokers. SCIENTIFICA 2014; 2014:613689. [PMID: 24729918 PMCID: PMC3960768 DOI: 10.1155/2014/613689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Background. HIV-infected subjects have an increased incidence of pulmonary emphysema. There are known gender differences in COPD phenotypic expression and diagnosis, but this is not well characterized in lung disease related to HIV. We analyzed a group at risk for the development of COPD (HIV-infected smokers) to determine gender differences in pulmonary symptoms, pulmonary function tests, and HRCT appearances. Methods. This was a cross-sectional, baseline analysis of a prospective study performed between 2006 and 2010. We performed symptomatic, pulmonary function, and computed tomography assessments in 243 HIV-infected smokers. In a subset bronchoalveolar lavage was performed with proteomic analysis of their alveolar macrophages. Results. The majority of the participants were male 213 (87.6%). There was significantly higher percentage of cough and phlegm production in males. There was also a lower FEV1 and a higher RV in males than females. Proteomic analysis revealed 29 proteins with at least a 2-fold higher expression in males and 13 identified proteins that were higher in females. Conclusions. In this group of HIV-infected smokers, airway symptoms and pulmonary function test abnormalities were higher in men than women. These gender differences may be due to differential expression of certain proteins in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva D. Rahmanian
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Karen L. Wood
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
- 201 Davis Heart and Lung Institute, 473 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Shili Lin
- Department of Statistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Mark A. King
- Department of Radiology, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - April Horne
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Shangbin Yang
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Haifeng M. Wu
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Philip T. Diaz
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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Mo C, Peng Q, Sui J, Wang J, Deng Y, Xie L, Li T, He Y, Qin X, Li S. Lack of association between cathepsin D C224T polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease risk: an update meta-analysis. BMC Neurol 2014; 14:13. [PMID: 24423188 PMCID: PMC3901763 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2377-14-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cathepsin D C224T polymorphism has been reported to associate with AD susceptibility. But the results were inconsistent. This study aimed to assess the relationship between C224T polymorphism and AD risk. METHODS The relevant studies were identified by searching PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Wan fang electronic databases updated on July 2013. The relationship between Cathepsin D C224T polymorphism and AD risk was evaluated by ORs and 95% CIs. RESULTS A total of 25 case-control studies including 5,602 cases and 11,049 controls were included in the meta-analysis. There was no association between C224T polymorphism and AD risk with all the studies were pooled in the meta-analysis (CT vs. CC: OR = 1.125, 95% CI = 0.974-1.299, P = 0.109; CT + TT vs. CC: OR = 1.136, 95% CI = 0.978-1.320, P = 0.094). Furthermore, when stratified by ethnicity, age of onset and APOEϵ4 status, significant association did not found in all subgroups. CONCLUSION The present meta-analysis suggested that the Cathepsin D C224T polymorphism was not associated with AD susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Xue Qin
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi 530021, China.
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Impairment of proteostasis network in Down syndrome prior to the development of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology: redox proteomics analysis of human brain. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1832:1249-59. [PMID: 23603808 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
DS is the most frequent genetic cause of intellectual disability characterized by the anomalous presence of three copies of chromosome 21. One of the peculiar features of DS is the onset of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology after the age of 40years characterized by deposition of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Growing studies demonstrated that increased oxidative damage, accumulation of unfolded/damaged protein aggregates and dysfunction of intracellular degradative system are key players in neurodegenerative processes. In this study, redox proteomics approach was used to analyze the frontal cortex from DS subjects under the age of 40 compared with age-matched controls, and proteins found to be increasingly carbonylated were identified. Interestingly, our results showed that oxidative damage targets specifically different components of the intracellular quality control system such as GRP78, UCH-L1, V0-ATPase, cathepsin D and GFAP that couples with decreased activity of the proteasome and autophagosome formation observed. We also reported a slight but consistent increase of Aβ 1-42 SDS- and PBS-soluble form and tau phosphorylation in DS versus CTR. We suggest that disturbance in the proteostasis network could contribute to the accumulation of protein aggregates, such as amyloid deposits and NFTs, which occur very early in DS. It is likely that a sub-optimal functioning of degradative systems occur in DS neurons, which in turn provide the basis for further accumulation of toxic protein aggregates. The results of this study suggest that oxidation of protein members of the proteostatis network is an early event in DS and might contribute to neurodegenerative phenomena.
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Cerebellar dysfunction in a family harboring the PSEN1 mutation co-segregating with a cathepsin D variant p.A58V. J Neurol Sci 2013; 326:75-82. [PMID: 23415546 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2013.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2012] [Revised: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Presenile dementia may be caused by a variety of different genetic conditions such as familial Alzheimer's disease, prion disease as well as several hereditary metabolic disorders including adult onset neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. We report a multigenerational family with autosomal dominant presenile dementia harboring a cerebellar phenotype. Longitudinal clinical work-up in affected family members revealed ataxia accompanied by progressive cognitive decline, rapid loss of global cognition, memory, visuospatial and frontal-executive functions accompanied by progressive motor deterioration and early death. Linkage analysis and exome sequencing identified the p.S170F mutation of Presenilin 1 in all affected individuals, which is known to be associated with very early onset Alzheimer's disease. Additional search for potentially modifying variants revealed in all affected individuals of the third generation a paternally inherited variant p.A58V (rs17571) of Cathepsin D which is considered an independent risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Involvement of cerebellar and brainstem structures leading to functional decortication in addition to rapid progressive presenile dementia in this PSEN1 family may therefore indicate an epistatic effect of the p.A58V Cathepsin D variant on the deleterious course of this disease.
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Cathepsin D deficiency induces cytoskeletal changes and affects cell migration pathways in the brain. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 50:107-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
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Schrijvers EMC, Schürmann B, Koudstaal PJ, van den Bussche H, Van Duijn CM, Hentschel F, Heun R, Hofman A, Jessen F, Kölsch H, Kornhuber J, Peters O, Rivadeneira F, Rüther E, Uitterlinden AG, Riedel-Heller S, Dichgans M, Wiltfang J, Maier W, Breteler MMB, Ikram MA. Genome-wide association study of vascular dementia. Stroke 2011; 43:315-9. [PMID: 22116812 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.111.628768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Most studies investigating the genetics of dementia have focused on Alzheimer disease, but little is known about the genetics of vascular dementia. The aim of our study was to identify new loci associated with vascular dementia. METHODS We performed a genome-wide association study in the Rotterdam Study, a large prospective population-based cohort study in the Netherlands. We sought to replicate genome-wide significant loci in 2 independent replication samples. RESULTS In the discovery analysis of 5700 dementia-free individuals, 67 patients developed incident vascular dementia over a mean follow-up time of 9.3 ± 3.2 years. We showed genome-wide significance for rs12007229, which is located on the X chromosome near the androgen receptor gene (OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 2.3-5.8, per copy of the minor allele; P=1.3 × 10(-8)). This association was further confirmed in 2 independent populations (probability value of combined replication samples=0.024). CONCLUSIONS Our study shows a novel genetic locus for vascular dementia on the X chromosome. Further replication of this finding is required.
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Khurana V, Elson-Schwab I, Fulga TA, Sharp KA, Loewen CA, Mulkearns E, Tyynelä J, Scherzer CR, Feany MB. Lysosomal dysfunction promotes cleavage and neurotoxicity of tau in vivo. PLoS Genet 2010; 6:e1001026. [PMID: 20664788 PMCID: PMC2904797 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Expansion of the lysosomal system, including cathepsin D upregulation, is an early and prominent finding in Alzheimer's disease brain. Cell culture studies, however, have provided differing perspectives on the lysosomal connection to Alzheimer's disease, including both protective and detrimental influences. We sought to clarify and molecularly define the connection in vivo in a genetically tractable model organism. Cathepsin D is upregulated with age in a Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease and related tauopathies. Genetic analysis reveals that cathepsin D plays a neuroprotective role because genetic ablation of cathepsin D markedly potentiates tau-induced neurotoxicity. Further, generation of a C-terminally truncated form of tau found in Alzheimer's disease patients is significantly increased in the absence of cathepsin D. We show that truncated tau has markedly increased neurotoxicity, while solubility of truncated tau is decreased. Importantly, the toxicity of truncated tau is not affected by removal of cathepsin D, providing genetic evidence that modulation of neurotoxicity by cathepsin D is mediated through C-terminal cleavage of tau. We demonstrate that removing cathepsin D in adult postmitotic neurons leads to aberrant lysosomal expansion and caspase activation in vivo, suggesting a mechanism for C-terminal truncation of tau. We also demonstrate that both cathepsin D knockout mice and cathepsin D–deficient sheep show abnormal C-terminal truncation of tau and accompanying caspase activation. Thus, caspase cleavage of tau may be a molecular mechanism through which lysosomal dysfunction and neurodegeneration are causally linked in Alzheimer's disease. Neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer's disease, are a devastating group of conditions that exact a heavy toll on patients and their families. These disorders also represent a significant and growing public health challenge as our population ages because no effective treatments are available. Research over the past two decades has strongly suggested that a fundamental problem in affected nerve cells relates to accumulation of cellular “garbage,” or proteins and other material that is too old to function properly. Thus, understanding how the neuron handles these outdated molecules is of great significance. Here we find that upregulation of one such cellular degrading pathway, the lysosome, can have significant deleterious effects to the neuron. We specifically show that expanding the lysosomal compartment can markedly increase production of a very toxic form of tau, a protein strongly implicated in neuronal dysfunction and death in Alzheimer's disease and related disorders. Our findings have important implications for the development of neurodegenerative disease therapies that seek to manipulate the lysosome and the proteins within the lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Khurana
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ilan Elson-Schwab
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tudor A. Fulga
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Katherine A. Sharp
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Carin A. Loewen
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Erin Mulkearns
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jaana Tyynelä
- Institute of Biomedicine/Medical Biochemistry and Developmental Biology, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Clemens R. Scherzer
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mel B. Feany
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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