Structural and functional neural correlates of visuospatial information processing in normal aging and amnestic mild cognitive impairment

Cognitive aging and reserve factors in the Metropolit 1953 Danish male cohort

Identifying early predictors of cognitive decline and at-risk individuals is essential for timely intervention and prevention of dementia. This study aimed to detect neurobiological changes and factors related to cognitive performance in the Metropolit 1953 Danish male birth cohort. We analyzed data from 582 participants, aged 57-68 years, using machine learning techniques to group cognitive trajectories into four clusters differentiating high- and low-performing groups. These clusters were then evaluated with MRI, EEG, and lifestyle/familial risk factors to identify predictors of cognitive decline. Low education and occupation, alcohol consumption, and type 2 diabetes were associated with lower cognitive performance. Declines in neocortical volume and increases in frontotemporal alpha and temporoparietal gamma activity preceded clinical symptoms of cognitive decline. Neocortical atrophy and disruptions in network activity were prominent in lower-performing groups, with higher education and IQ scores and a lower prevalence of lifestyle factors moderating cognitive decline.

Altered face perception in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: Evidence from representational similarity analysis of event-related potential

BackgroundStructural changes in medial temporal lobes including the fusiform gyrus, a critical area in face recognition, precede the progression of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) to Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, how the neural correlates of face processing altered in aMCI, as well as their association with cognitive impairments, remain unclear.ObjectiveUsing electroencephalogram (EEG), we explored the electrophysiological markers of face-specific visual processing alterations in aMCI and examined their relationship with cognitive deficits.MethodsWe recruited participants with aMCI (n = 32) and healthy controls (HC, n = 41) and used a passive viewing task to measure the event-related potential (ERP) in response to faces and non-face objects. To compare face processing in aMCI patients and HCs, we adopted mass univariate analysis and representational similarity analysis (RSA) to explore aMCI-related alterations in ERPs.ResultsWe found that face inversion effect (FIE) in P1 amplitudes was absent in aMCI patients. Also, compared to HCs, aMCI patients exhibited a lack of right hemisphere advantage in N170 in response to faces. Furthermore, representation similarity analysis of ERP in posterior-temporal regions revealed that aMCI patients represent face and non-face objects distinctively from HCs in the early processing stage. Additionally, the FIE in P1 amplitude positively correlated to aMCI patients' visuospatial functions.ConclusionsThese findings showed aMCI-related changes in the early perceptual processing of faces and highlights the potential of the FIE in P1 amplitude and ERP patterns over occipital-temporal regions as electrophysiological markers for aMCI and AD.

Study on cognitive impairment evaluation based on photoelectric neural information

Background

Whether there is a cognitive load-dependent brain activation pattern in the pre-Alzheimer's disease phase is unknown. Multimodal system provides a powerful technical tool.

Objective

We evaluated brain activity patterns under different cognitive loads in patients with mild cognitive impairment.

Methods

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy signals and electroencephalography signals were acquired from the mild cognitive impairment group (MCI, n = 20) and the healthy control group (HC, n = 24) under four cognitive loads. We analyzed the respective brain activity features and performed correlation analyses.

Results

(1) During the encoding phase, both the left occipital (p cond = 0.05, p group < 0.01) and left temporal (p cond = 0.02, p group = 0.03) skewness condition effects and between-group effects were significant. (2) As the cognitive load increased, the clustering coefficients and local efficiencies were significantly lower for the HC group. (3) The left occipital and left temporal activation skewness in the MCI group were significantly correlated with left occipital electrical features, whereas the left occipital activation intensity and skewness were significantly correlated with left occipital electrical features in HC group.

Conclusions

The pattern of brain activity in MCI depends on cognitive load. Left occipital and left temporal may be important brain regions for evaluating MCI and need to be focused on in the future.

Inhibitor PF-04691502 works as a senolytic to regulate cellular senescence

Aging is a gradual process of natural change that occurs after reaching sexual maturity. It is also a known risk factor for many chronic diseases. Recent research has shown that senolytics can extend the lifespans and health spans of model organisms, and they have also been demonstrated effective in treating age-related diseases. In this study, we conducted a high-throughput screening of 156 drugs that targeted the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to identify potential senolytic medications. Among these drugs, PF-04691502 was selected for further investigation to understand its molecular mechanism of action. Our findings indicate that PF-04691502, a dual inhibitor of PI3K/AKT and mTOR, specifically eliminates senescent cells. It reduces the expression levels of key markers of cellular senescence, such as SA-β-Gal, senescence-associated secretory phenotypes (SASPs) and p16INK4a. Additionally, PF-04691502 inhibits the phosphorylation of S6K and AKT, leading to the apoptosis of senescent cells. These results suggest that PF-04691502 holds promise as a new senolytic drug. This paper provides important insights into the potential application of PF-04691502 in the study of cell senescence.

Alteration of Visuospatial System as an Early Marker of Cognitive Decline: A Double-Center Neuroimaging Study

Amnestic-type mild cognitive impairment (a-MCI) represents the prodromal phase of Alzheimer's disease associated with a high conversion rate to dementia and serves as a potential golden period for interventions. In our study, we analyzed the role of visuospatial (VS) functions and networks in the recognition of a-MCI. We examined 78 participants (32 patients and 46 controls) in a double-center arrangement using neuropsychology, structural, and resting-state functional MRI. We found that imaging of the lateral temporal areas showed strong discriminating power since in patients only the temporal pole (F = 5.26, p = 0.034) and superior temporal gyrus (F = 8.04, p < 0.001) showed reduced cortical thickness. We demonstrated significant differences between controls and patients in various neuropsychological results; however, analysis of cognitive subdomains revealed that the largest difference was presented in VS skills (F = 8.32, p < 0.001). Functional connectivity analysis of VS network showed that patients had weaker connectivity between the left and right frontotemporal areas, while stronger local connectivity was presented between the left frontotemporal structures (FWE corrected p < 0.05). Our results highlight the remarkable potential of examining the VS system in the early detection of cognitive decline. Since resting-state setting of functional MRI simplifies the possible automatization of data analysis, detection of VS system alterations might provide a non-invasive biomarker of a-MCI.

Neuropsychology of posteromedial parietal cortex and conversion factors from Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer's disease: systematic search and state-of-the-art review

In the present review, we discuss the rationale and the clinical implications of assessing visuospatial working memory (VSWM), awareness of memory deficits, and visuomotor control in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). These three domains are related to neural activity in the posteromedial parietal cortex (PMC) whose hypoactivation seems to be a significant predictor of conversion from MCI to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) as indicated by recent neuroimaging evidence. A systematic literature search was performed up to May 2021. Forty-eight studies were included: 42 studies provided analytical cross-sectional data and 6 studies longitudinal data on conversion rates. Overall, these studies showed that patients with MCI performed worse than healthy controls in tasks assessing VSWM, awareness of memory deficits, and visuomotor control; in some cases, MCI patients’ performance was comparable to that of patients with overt dementia. Deficits in VSWM and metamemory appear to be significant predictors of conversion. No study explored the relationship between visuomotor control and conversion. Nevertheless, it has been speculated that the assessment of visuomotor abilities in subjects at high AD risk might be useful to discriminate patients who are likely to convert from those who are not. Being able to indirectly estimate PMC functioning through quick and easy neuropsychological tasks in outpatient settings may improve diagnostic and prognostic accuracy, and therefore, the quality of the MCI patient’s management.

Impaired cerebral vascular and metabolic responses to parametric N-back tasks in subjective cognitive decline

Previous studies reported abnormally increased and/or decreased blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) activations during functional tasks in subjective cognitive decline (SCD). The neurophysiological basis underlying these functional aberrations remains debated. This study aims to investigate vascular and metabolic responses and their dependence on cognitive processing loads during functional tasks in SCD. Twenty-one SCD and 18 control subjects performed parametric N-back working-memory tasks during MRI scans. Task-evoked percentage changes (denoted as δ) in cerebral blood volume (δCBV), cerebral blood flow (δCBF), BOLD signal (δBOLD) and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (δCMRO₂) were evaluated. In the frontal lobe, trends of decreased δCBV, δCBF and δCMRO₂ and increased δBOLD were observed in SCD compared with control subjects under lower loads, and these trends increased to significant differences under the 3-back load. δCBF was significantly correlated with δCMRO₂ in controls, but not in SCD subjects. As N-back loads increased, the differences between SCD and control subjects in δCBF and δCMRO₂ tended to enlarge. In the parietal lobe, no significant between-group difference was observed. Our findings suggested that impaired vascular and metabolic responses to functional tasks occurred in the frontal lobe of SCD, which contributed to unusual BOLD hyperactivation and was modulated by cognitive processing loads.

Relationship of Parieto-Occipital Brain Energy Phosphate Metabolism and Cognition Using 31P MRS at 7-Tesla in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment

Background

The human brain has high energy requirements that continuously support healthy neuronal activity and cognition. A disruption in brain energy metabolism (BEM) may contribute to early neuropathological changes such as accumulation of β-amyloid and tau in vulnerable populations. One such population is amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) where some individuals are at risk for developing dementia, i.e. Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recent advances in imaging technology are providing new avenues to measure BEM accurately using 31phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P MRS) at ultra-high-field (UHF) magnetic strength 7-Tesla. This study investigates whether a methodology using partial volume-coil 31P MRS at 7T over parieto-occipital lobes can accurately quantify high-energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolites in aMCI. A secondary objective was to explore BEM and membrane phospholipid indices’ correspondence with cognitive performance in domains of executive function (EF), memory, attention, and visuospatial skills in aMCI, a heterogeneous population.

Methods

19 aMCI participants enrolled in the study completed cognitive assessment and 31P MRS scan. BEM indices were measured using three energy indicators: energy reserve (PCr/t-ATP), energy consumption (intracellular_Pi/t-ATP), and metabolic state (PCr/intracellular_Pi) along with regulatory co-factors of BEM-intracellular Mg^{2 +} and pH; whereas the ratio of phosphomonoesters (PMEs) to phosphodiesters (PDEs) – membrane phospholipid indicator.

Results

31P MRS scan showed thirteen well-resolved peaks with precise quantification of the phosphorus metabolites at UHF. The higher BEM indices were associated with lower cognitive performance of memory [(energy reserve indicator: CVLT p = 0.004), (metabolic state indicator: CVLT p = 0.007)], executive function [(metabolic state indicator: TOSL (p = 0.044)], and attention [(pH: selective auditory task, p = 0.044)]. The finding of an inverse relationship observed in the parieto-occipital lobes suggests an association between neuronal energy markers with cognition in aMCI.

Conclusion

The significant contribution of this preliminary research was to establish the feasibility of utilizing a methodology at UHF to accurately measure high-energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolites in a population with heterogeneous outcomes. This work offers a novel approach for future work to further elucidate early dementia biomarkers or precursors to the downstream accumulation of amyloid and tau using the combination of MRS-PET imaging modalities in AD.

Effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors on ageing: Molecular mechanisms

Human ageing is determined by degenerative alterations and processes with different manifestations such as gradual organ dysfunction, tissue function loss, increased population of aged (senescent) cells, incapability of maintaining homeostasis and reduced repair capacity, which collectively lead to an increased risk of diseases and death. The inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase (statins) are the most widely used lipid-lowering agents, which can reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Accumulating evidence has documented several pleiotropic effects of statins in addition to their lipid-lowering properties. Recently, several studies have highlighted that statins may have the potential to delay the ageing process and inhibit the onset of senescence. In this review, we focused on the anti-ageing mechanisms of statin drugs and their effects on cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular diseases.

Age-related differences in brain activation during working memory updating: An fMRI study

Recent neuroimaging studies have reported an age-related reduction in brain activations in response to working memory load in task-sensitive brain regions. The current fMRI study investigated the age-related differences in brain activations of the updating mechanism in working memory, which was not investigated in previous studies. With a hybrid block/event-related design, this study was able to examine changes in BOLD signals (i.e., neuromodulation) to increase in updating, a type of cognitive control that is understudied. Older adults were separated into young-old and old-old cohorts to examine whether, within healthy aging, the neuromodulation to cognitive control decreases with age. Our results show that younger adults activate left precentral gyrus and right cerebellum more during trials that require updating than trials that do not require updating. Although older adults showed reduced neuromodulation in these two regions, the old-old cohort failed to show any significant neuromodulation in response to updating. Moreover, older adults not only showed reduced suppressions of the default mode network (DMN) regions during the task, they also overactivated some of the DMN regions, esp. the old-old, when compared to the younger adults. Older adults also showed overactivations in a region (right precentral gyrus) that is contralateral to a task-sensitive region that was activated in the younger adults during updating. Brain-behavior correlations suggest that age-related overactivations of these DMN regions and the right precentral gyrus are maladaptive to their performance. Our results suggest that not only the neuromodulation in response to updating demands is diminished in healthy aging, older adults also show maladaptive increases in activations of task-irrelevant regions and reduced hemispheric specificity during updating. These effects are most pronounced in old-old cohort, compared to young-old, suggesting that age-related declines in neuromodulation during cognitive control is more pronounced in older cohorts within healthy aging.

Effects of Acupuncture Therapy on MCI Patients Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Acupuncture therapy (AT) is a non-pharmacological method of treatment that has been applied to various neurological diseases. However, studies on its longitudinal effect on the neural mechanisms of patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) for treatment purposes are still lacking in the literature. In this clinical study, we assess the longitudinal effects of ATs on MCI patients using two methods: (i) Montreal Cognitive Assessment test (MoCA-K, Korean version), and (ii) the hemodynamic response (HR) analyses using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). fNIRS signals of a working memory (WM) task were acquired from the prefrontal cortex. Twelve elderly MCI patients and 12 healthy people were recruited as target and healthy control (HC) groups, respectively. Each group went through an fNIRS scanning procedure three times: The initial data were obtained without any ATs, and subsequently a total of 24 AT sessions were conducted for MCI patients (i.e., MCI-0: the data prior to ATs, MCI-1: after 12 sessions of ATs for 6 weeks, MCI-2: another 12 sessions of ATs for 6 weeks). The mean HR responses of all MCI-0–2 cases were lower than those of HCs. To compare the effects of AT on MCI patients, MoCA-K results, temporal HR data, and spatial activation patterns (i.e., t-maps) were examined. In addition, analyses of functional connectivity (FC) and graph theory upon WM tasks were conducted. With ATs, (i) the averaged MoCA-K test scores were improved (MCI-1, p = 0.002; MCI-2, p = 2.9e^–4); (ii) the mean HR response of WM tasks was increased (p < 0.001); and (iii) the t-maps of MCI-1 and MCI-2 were enhanced. Furthermore, an increased FC in the prefrontal cortex in both MCI-1/MCI-2 cases in comparison to MCI-0 was obtained (p < 0.01), and an increasing trend in the graph theory parameters was observed. All these findings reveal that ATs have a positive impact on improving the cognitive function of MCI patients. In conclusion, ATs can be used as a therapeutic tool for MCI patients as a non-pharmacological method (Clinical trial registration number: KCT 0002451 https://cris.nih.go.kr/cris/en/).

The impact of age and sex on the oscillatory dynamics of visuospatial processing

The ability to dynamically allocate neural resources within the visual space is supported by a number of spectrally-specific oscillatory responses, and such visuospatial processing has been found to decline moderately with age and differ by sex. However, the direct effects of age and sex on these oscillatory dynamics remains poorly understood. Using magnetoencephalography (MEG), structural magnetic resonance imaging, and advanced source reconstruction and statistical methods, we investigated the impact of aging and sex on behavioral performance and the underlying neural dynamics during visuospatial processing. In a large sample spanning a broad age range, we find that a number of prototypical attention and perception network components, both spectrally- and spatially-defined, exhibit complex and uniquely informative relationships with age and sex. Specifically, neural responses in the theta range (4-10 Hz) were found to covary with chronological age in prefrontal and motor cortices, signifying a possible relationship between age and cognitive control. Further, we found that beta (18-24 Hz) activity covaried with age across a large swath of the somato-motor strip, supporting previous findings of motor planning and execution deficits with increasing age. Finally, gamma-frequency (48-70 Hz) oscillations were found to exhibit robust covariance with age in superior parietal and temporo-parietal areas, indicating that the mapping of saliency in visual space is modulated by the normal aging process. Interestingly, behavioral performance and some of these oscillatory neural responses also exhibited interactions between age and sex, indicating sex differences in the evolution of the neural coding of visual perception as age increases. In particular, men were found to have stronger correlations between age and neural oscillatory responses during task performance than women in lateral occipital and superior temporal regions in the alpha band and in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the gamma band, while women exhibited more robust covariance between age and neural responses than men in inferior temporal and medial prefrontal cortex in the theta range.

Alterations to task positive and task negative networks during executive functioning in Mild Cognitive Impairment

Poor executive functioning increases risk of decline in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Executive functioning can be conceptualized within the framework of working memory. While some components are responsible for maintaining representations in working memory, the central executive is involved in the manipulation of information and creation of new representations. We aimed to examine the neural correlates of these components of working memory using a maintenance working memory and visuospatial reasoning task. Twenty-five patients with amnestic MCI and 19 elderly controls (EC) completed functional MRI during reasoning and maintenance working memory tasks. In MCI, maintenance working memory was associated with hypoactivation of right frontoparietal regions and hyperactivation of left prefrontal cortex, coupled with attenuation of default mode network (DMN) relative to EC. During reasoning, MCI showed hypoactivation of parietal regions, coupled with attenuation of anterior DMN and increased deactivation of posterior DMN relative to EC. Comparing the reasoning task to the maintenance working memory task yields the central executive. In MCI, the central executive showed hypoactivation of right parietal lobe and increased deactivation of posterior DMN compared to EC. Consistent with prior work on executive functioning, MCI show different neural circuitry during visuospatial reasoning, including changes to both task positive frontoparietal regions, as well as to deactivation patterns within the DMN. Both hyperactivation of task positive networks and increased deactivation of DMN may be compensatory.

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MCI show changes to task positive & negative networks during executive functioning.

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MCI show hypoactivation of parietal cortex & attenuation of medial PFC deactivation.

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Hypoactivation occurs in regions vulnerable to AD pathology.

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MCI show hyperactivation of left PFC & more deactivation of posterior DMN.

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These activity increases correlate with stronger cognition and may be compensatory.

Reduced Frontal Activations at High Working Memory Load in Mild Cognitive Impairment: Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

BACKGROUND

Some functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have reported altered activations in the frontal cortex during working memory (WM) performance in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), but the findings have been mixed. The objective of the present study was to utilize near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), an alternative imaging technique, to examine neural processing during WM performance in individuals with MCI.

METHODS

Twenty-six older adults with MCI (7 males; mean age 69.15 years) were compared with 26 age-, gender-, handedness-, and education-matched older adults with normal cognition (NC; 7 males; mean age 68.87 years). All of the participants undertook an n-back task with a low (i.e., 0-back) and a high (i.e., 2-back) WM load condition while their prefrontal dynamics were recorded by a 16-channel NIRS system.

RESULTS

Although behavioral results showed that the two groups had comparable task performance, neuroimaging results showed that the MCI group, unlike the NC group, did not exhibit significantly increased frontal activations bilaterally when WM load increased. Compared to the NC group, the MCI group had similar frontal activations at low load (p > 0.05 on all channels) but reduced activations at high load (p < 0.05 on 4 channels), thus failing to demonstrate WM-related frontal activations (p < 0.05 on 9 channels). In addition, we found a positive correlation between the left WM-related frontal activations and WM ability primarily in the NC group (rs = 0.42, p = 0.035), suggesting a relationship between frontal hypoactivation and WM difficulties.

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest the presence of frontal dysfunction that is dependent on WM load in individuals with MCI.

The Effect of Apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOE ε4) on Visuospatial Working Memory in Healthy Elderly and Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment Patients: An Event-Related Potentials Study

Background: Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 is the only established risk gene for late-onset, sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Previous studies have provided inconsistent evidence for the effect of APOE ε4 status on the visuospatial working memory (VSWM).

Objective: The aim was to investigate the effect of APOE ε4 on VSWM with an event-related potential (ERP) study in healthy controls (HC) and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) patients.

Methods: The study recorded 39 aMCI patients (27 APOE ε4 non-carriers and 12 APOE ε4 carriers) and their 43 matched controls (25 APOE ε4 non-carriers and 18 APOE ε4 carriers) with an 64-channel electroencephalogram. Participants performed an N-back task, a VSWM paradigm that manipulated the number of items to be stored in memory.

Results: The present study detected reduced accuracy and delayed mean correct response time (RT) in aMCI patients compared to HC. P300, a positive component that peaks between 300 and 500 ms, was elicited by the VSWM task. In addition, aMCI patients showed decreased P300 amplitude at the central–parietal (CP1, CPz, and CP2) and parietal (P1, Pz, and P2) electrodes in 0- and 1-back task compared to HC. In both HC and aMCI patients, APOE ε4 carriers showed reduced P300 amplitude with respect to non-carriers, whereas no significant differences in accuracy or RT were detected between APOE ε4 carriers and non-carriers. Additionally, standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography analysis (s-LORETA) showed enhanced brain activation in the right parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) during P300 time range in APOE ε4 carriers with respect to non-carriers in aMCI patients.

Conclusion: It demonstrated that P300 amplitude could predict VSWM deficits in aMCI patients and contribute to early detection of VSWM deficits in APOE ε4 carriers.

The effects of task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during the encoding of a serial sequence on visuospatial memory performance

Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) is a set of cognitive processes used to encode, maintain and manipulate spatial information. One important feature of VSWM is that it has a limited capacity such that only few items can be actively stored and manipulated simultaneously. Given the limited capacity, it is important to determine the conditions that affect memory performance as this will improve our understanding of the architecture and function of VSWM. Previous studies have shown that VSWM is disrupted when task-irrelevant eye movements are performed during the maintenance phase; however, relatively fewer studies examined the role of eye movements performed during the encoding phase. On one hand, performing eye movements during the encoding phase could result in a stronger memory trace because the memory formation is reinforced by the activation of the motor system. On the other hand, performing eye movements to each target could disrupt the configural processing of the spatial array because the spatial representation has to be updated with each movement to maintain perceptual stability. Therefore, this work was conducted to examine whether task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during the encoding phase of a visuospatial working memory task affect the recall of serially presented targets. Results from two experiments showed that average recall accuracy was significantly higher when the spatial array (set size ≥ 7) was encoded using a covert strategy-that is, while participants fixated on a central target, in comparison to an overt strategy-that is, while participants moved their eyes to fixate on each target. Furthermore, the improvement in accuracy was evident only for targets presented in the first half of the sequence, suggesting that the primacy effect is modulated by the presence of eye movements. We propose that executing saccades during encoding could interfere with the ability to use a chunking strategy or disrupt active visualization of the configuration. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during encoding may actually reduce the spatial span of VSWM. These results extend the current knowledge about the role of eye movements in VSWM, and have implications for future studies investigating the VSWM.

Prefrontal activation may predict working-memory training gain in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment

Cognitive training has been shown to result in improved behavioral performance in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), yet little is known about the neural correlates of cognitive plasticity, or about individual differences in responsiveness to cognitive training. In this study, 21 healthy older adults and 14 patients with MCI received five weeks of adaptive computerized working-memory (WM) training. Before and after training, functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to assess the hemodynamic response in left and right prefrontal cortex during performance of a verbal n-back task with varying levels of WM load. After training, healthy older adults demonstrated decreased prefrontal activation at high WM load, which may indicate increased processing efficiency. Although MCI patients showed improved behavioral performance at low WM load after training, no evidence was found for training-related changes in prefrontal activation. Whole-group analyses showed that a relatively strong hemodynamic response at low WM load was related to worse behavioral performance, while a relatively strong hemodynamic response at high WM load was related to higher training gain. Therefore, a 'youth-like' prefrontal activation pattern at older age may be associated with better behavioral outcome and cognitive plasticity.

Social Network Size and Cognitive Functioning in Middle-Aged Adults: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations

The objective of the present study was to examine relations between social network size and three cognitive abilities (episodic memory, semantic memory, visuospatial ability) in middle-aged adults. We analyzed cross-sectional data on social network size and cognitive functioning that were available for 804 participants aged 40–60 years. In addition, we examined 5- and 10-year follow-up measurements of cognitive functioning that were available for 604 and 255 participants, respectively. Cross-sectional analyses revealed a positive association between social network size and each of the three cognitive abilities. Baseline network size was positively related to 5-year changes in semantic memory, and to 10-year changes in semantic as well as episodic memory, but was unrelated to changes in visuospatial performance. A minor portion of the sample (n = 131) had 10-year follow-up data on network size. Cross-lagged panel correlations revealed that baseline network size was associated with follow-up measurement in cognitive functioning (episodic memory, semantic memory), whereas baseline cognitive performance was unrelated to future network size. Together, the results demonstrate a small but positive relation between network size and declarative memory abilities, in line with models proposing a cognitive reserve built up by factors such as the increased cognitive stimulation associated with a more extensive social network.

Functional neural correlates of figure copy and recall task performances in cognitively impaired individuals: an 18F-FDG-PET study

Figure copy and recall tasks from the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT) and the Consortium to Establish a Registry of Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) neuropsychological battery are used widely to assess visuospatial function in cognitively impaired (CI) individuals. We aimed to identify functional neural correlates of figure copy and recall task performances as measured by the BVRT and the CERAD constructional praxis (CP) and CP recall (CR) in CI individuals. Both tasks were administered to 64 CI individuals with early or prodromal stage Alzheimer's disease and 36 cognitively normal individuals. Voxel-wise correlations between test scores and regional cerebral glucose metabolism (rCMglc) measured by fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose PET in CI participants were analyzed. BVRT figure copy task performance was associated with rCMglc of the bilateral posterior brain regions including the parieto-temporo-occipital regions, whereas the BVRT figure recall task performance was predominantly correlated with rCMglc of the left parietal and temporo-occipital regions. Meanwhile, CERAD CP performance was associated mainly with rCMglc of the left prefrontal and temporo-occipital areas as well as in the bilateral parietal regions, whereas CERAD CR performance was correlated with rCMglc of the right prefrontal, parietal, and temporal regions. In conclusion, the functional neural correlates of the two tasks were markedly different, suggesting that these tasks might measure different visuospatial functions. Our findings contribute toward understanding the functional neuroanatomical aspects of these tasks, which is useful for both interpreting the task results as well as for more sophisticated utilization of these tasks for probing specific neuroanatomical functions.

Altered Frontal Lateralization Underlies the Category Fluency Deficits in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study

Individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) have been consistently found to have category fluency deficits. However, little is known about the neural basis of these deficits. A diversity of neuroimaging studies has revealed left-lateralized prefrontal activations due to verbal processing and control functions during the performance of category fluency tasks. Given the reports of structural and functional abnormalities in the prefrontal cortices in individuals with MCI, it is conceivable that these individuals would also exhibit altered prefrontal activation patterns during a category fluency task. The present study aimed to investigate the prefrontal dynamics during the category fluency task in older adults with MCI by using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Twenty-six older adults with MCI were compared with 26 older adults with normal cognition (NC) who were matched in age, gender, handedness, and educational level. All participants performed a category fluency task while the prefrontal dynamics were recorded. The results showed that the MCI group generated fewer unique words, made fewer switches between subcategories, and generated fewer new subcategories than did the NC group. Importantly, the NIRS results showed that the NC group exhibited a left lateralization of frontal activations during the category fluency task, while the MCI group did not exhibit such a lateralization. Furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation between the category fluency performance and the extent of lateralization, suggesting that the category fluency deficits in the MCI group could be related to frontal dysfunction. That is, the rightward shift of frontal activations in the MCI group may reflect the presence of cortical reorganization in which the contralateral regions (i.e., the right hemisphere) are recruited to take over the function that is declining in the specialized regions (i.e., the left hemisphere). Our lateralization finding may serve as an objective neural marker for distinguishing between normal aging and MCI. Our study highlights that an alteration of neural functioning is already present at the prodromal stage of dementia.

The Association of Specific Executive Functions and Falls Risk in People with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Early-Stage Dementia

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Impairment in executive function is associated with a heightened risk for falls in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. The purpose of this study was to determine which aspects of executive function are associated with falls risk.

METHODS

Forty-two participants with a mean age of 81.6 years and a diagnosis of MCI or mild dementia completed five different executive function tests from the computerised CANTAB test battery and a comprehensive falls risk assessment.

RESULTS

A hierarchical regression analysis showed that falls risk was significantly associated with spatial memory abilities and inhibition of a pre-potent response.

CONCLUSION

The concept of executive function may be too general to provide meaningful results in a research or clinical context, which should focus on spatial memory and inhibition of a pre-potent response.

Amyloid-independent functional neural correlates of episodic memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment

PURPOSE

Although amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) could have various biological characteristics, little attention has been given to the nature of episodic memory decline in aMCI with pathophysiologies other than Alzheimer's disease (AD), i.e., aMCI with low beta-amyloid (Aβ) burden. This study aimed to identify the functional neural basis of episodic memory impairment in aMCI with Aβ burden negative (aMCI-Aβ-) and to compare these results with aMCI with Aβ burden positive (aMCI-Aβ+).

METHODS

Individuals with aMCI (n = 498) were selected from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative database. Based on the mean florbetapir standard uptake value ratio, participants were classified as aMCI-Aβ- or aMCI-Aβ+. Correlations between memory scores and regional cerebral glucose metabolism (rCMglc) were analyzed separately for the two subgroups using a multiple regression model.

RESULTS

For aMCI-Aβ-, significant positive correlations between memory and rCMglc were found in the bilateral claustrum, right thalamus, left anterior cingulate cortex, left insula, and right posterior cingulate. For aMCI-Aβ+, significant positive correlations between memory and rCMglc were found in the temporoparietal areas. These correlation patterns remained unchanged when clinical severity was added as a covariate

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that memory impairment in aMCI-Aβ- is related to multimodal integrative processing and the attentional control system, whereas memory impairment in aMCI-Aβ+ is related to the typical brain memory systems and AD signature. These results suggest that although the two subgroups are clinically in the same category as aMCI, the memory impairment process depends on completely different functional brain regions according to their Aβ burden level.

Putting age-related task activation into large-scale brain networks: A meta-analysis of 114 fMRI studies on healthy aging

Normal aging is associated with cognitive decline and underlying brain dysfunction. Previous studies concentrated less on brain network changes at a systems level. Our goal was to examine these age-related changes of fMRI-derived activation with a common network parcellation of the human brain function, offering a systems-neuroscience perspective of healthy aging. We conducted a series of meta-analyses on a total of 114 studies that included 2035 older adults and 1845 young adults. Voxels showing significant age-related changes in activation were then overlaid onto seven commonly referenced neuronal networks. Older adults present moderate cognitive decline in behavioral performance during fMRI scanning, and hypo-activate the visual network and hyper-activate both the frontoparietal control and default mode networks. The degree of increased activation in frontoparietal network was associated with behavioral performance in older adults. Age-related changes in activation present different network patterns across cognitive domains. The systems neuroscience approach used here may be useful for elucidating the underlying network mechanisms of various brain plasticity processes during healthy aging.

Decreased activity with increased background network efficiency in amnestic MCI during a visuospatial working memory task

Recent studies have demonstrated the working memory impairment in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). However, the neurophysiological basis of the working memory deficit in aMCI is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the abnormal activity during encoding and recognition procedures, as well as the reorganization of the background network maintaining the working memory state in aMCI. Using event-related fMRI during a visuospatial working memory task with three recognition difficulty levels, the task-related activations and network efficiency of the background network in 17 aMCI patients and 19 matched controls were investigated. Compared with cognitively healthy controls, patients with aMCI showed significantly decreased activity in the frontal and visual cortices during the encoding phase, while during the recognition phase, decreased activity was detected in the frontal, parietal, and visual regions. In addition, increased local efficiency was also observed in the background network of patients with aMCI. The results suggest patients with aMCI showed impaired encoding and recognition functions during the visuospatial working memory task, and may pay more effort to maintain the cognitive state. This study extends our understanding of the impaired working memory function in aMCI and provides a new perspective to investigate the compensatory mechanism in aMCI.

Toward systems neuroscience in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis of 75 fMRI studies

Most of the previous task functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies found abnormalities in distributed brain regions in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), and few studies investigated the brain network dysfunction from the system level. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to examine brain network dysfunction in MCI and AD. We systematically searched task-based fMRI studies in MCI and AD published between January 1990 and January 2014. Activation likelihood estimation meta-analyses were conducted to compare the significant group differences in brain activation, the significant voxels were overlaid onto seven referenced neuronal cortical networks derived from the resting-state fMRI data of 1,000 healthy participants. Thirty-nine task-based fMRI studies (697 MCI patients and 628 healthy controls) were included in MCI-related meta-analysis while 36 task-based fMRI studies (421 AD patients and 512 healthy controls) were included in AD-related meta-analysis. The meta-analytic results revealed that MCI and AD showed abnormal regional brain activation as well as large-scale brain networks. MCI patients showed hypoactivation in default, frontoparietal, and visual networks relative to healthy controls, whereas AD-related hypoactivation mainly located in visual, default, and ventral attention networks relative to healthy controls. Both MCI-related and AD-related hyperactivation fell in frontoparietal, ventral attention, default, and somatomotor networks relative to healthy controls. MCI and AD presented different pathological while shared similar compensatory large-scale networks in fulfilling the cognitive tasks. These system-level findings are helpful to link the fundamental declines of cognitive tasks to brain networks in MCI and AD.

Visuospatial tasks affect locomotor control more than nonspatial tasks in older people

BACKGROUND

Previous research has shown that visuospatial processing requiring working memory is particularly important for balance control during standing and stepping, and that limited spatial encoding contributes to increased interference in postural control dual tasks. However, visuospatial involvement during locomotion has not been directly determined. This study examined the effects of a visuospatial cognitive task versus a nonspatial cognitive task on gait speed, smoothness and variability in older people, while controlling for task difficulty.

METHODS

Thirty-six people aged ≥75 years performed three walking trials along a 20 m walkway under the following conditions: (i) an easy nonspatial task; (ii) a difficult nonspatial task; (iii) an easy visuospatial task; and (iv) a difficult visuospatial task. Gait parameters were computed from a tri-axial accelerometer attached to the sacrum. The cognitive task response times and percentage of correct answers during walking and seated trials were also computed.

RESULTS

No significant differences in either cognitive task type error rates or response times were evident in the seated conditions, indicating equivalent task difficulty. In the walking trials, participants responded faster to the visuospatial tasks than the nonspatial tasks but at the cost of making significantly more cognitive task errors. Participants also walked slower, took shorter steps, had greater step time variability and less smooth pelvis accelerations when concurrently performing the visuospatial tasks compared with the nonspatial tasks and when performing the difficult compared with the easy cognitive tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with nonspatial cognitive tasks, visuospatial cognitive tasks led to a slower, more variable and less smooth gait pattern. These findings suggest that visuospatial processing might share common networks with locomotor control, further supporting the hypothesis that gait changes during dual task paradigms are not simply due to limited attentional resources but to competition for common networks for spatial information encoding.

Visual cortex in aging and Alzheimer's disease: changes in visual field maps and population receptive fields

Although several studies have suggested that cortical alterations underlie such age-related visual deficits as decreased acuity, little is known about what changes actually occur in visual cortex during healthy aging. Two recent studies showed changes in primary visual cortex (V1) during normal aging; however, no studies have characterized the effects of aging on visual cortex beyond V1, important measurements both for understanding the aging process and for comparison to changes in age-related diseases. Similarly, there is almost no information about changes in visual cortex in Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia. Because visual deficits are often reported as one of the first symptoms of AD, measurements of such changes in the visual cortex of AD patients might improve our understanding of how the visual system is affected by neurodegeneration as well as aid early detection, accurate diagnosis and timely treatment of AD. Here we use fMRI to first compare the visual field map (VFM) organization and population receptive fields (pRFs) between young adults and healthy aging subjects for occipital VFMs V1, V2, V3, and hV4. Healthy aging subjects do not show major VFM organizational deficits, but do have reduced surface area and increased pRF sizes in the foveal representations of V1, V2, and hV4 relative to healthy young control subjects. These measurements are consistent with behavioral deficits seen in healthy aging. We then demonstrate the feasibility and first characterization of these measurements in two patients with mild AD, which reveal potential changes in visual cortex as part of the pathophysiology of AD. Our data aid in our understanding of the changes in the visual processing pathways in normal aging and provide the foundation for future research into earlier and more definitive detection of AD.

Intracellular cytokine production and cognition in healthy older adults

Elevated concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 have been associated with impaired cognitive performance. There are, however, few studies that have examined the relationship between cytokine production and specific aspects of cognition in healthy older individuals. Two-colour flow cytometry was used to determine intracellular cytokine production by activated monocytes, and neuropsychological tests were performed using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) in 93 apparently healthy men and women aged 55-70 years. A series of hierarchical regression analyses was carried out to examine the contribution of IL-1β and IL-6 (% expression and production (antibody binding capacity (ABC))) to recognition, attention and working memory, after controlling for socio-demographic variables (age, sex and social class). IL-1β% expression and IL-6 production predicted aspects of working memory. Recognition memory was found to be sensitive to the affects of age and social class. The current study suggests that higher intracellular cytokine production by activated monocytes may be predictive of lower cognitive performance in working memory in healthy older individuals. These findings indicate that utilization of models for in vivo cytokine production upon immune challenge may be useful in studying specific aspects of memory affected during inflammatory responses, for example in individuals at risk for cognitive decline owing to age-related inflammatory disorders.

Neural correlates of saccadic inhibition in healthy elderly and patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment

Performance on tasks that require saccadic inhibition declines with age and altered inhibitory functioning has also been reported in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Although mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is assumed to be a high-risk factor for conversion to AD, little is known about changes in saccadic inhibition and its neural correlates in this condition. Our study determined whether the neural activation associated with saccadic inhibition is altered in persons with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) revealed decreased activation in parietal lobe in healthy elderly persons compared to young persons and decreased activation in frontal eye fields in aMCI patients compared to healthy elderly persons during the execution of anti-saccades. These results illustrate that the decline in inhibitory functions is associated with impaired frontal activation in aMCI. This alteration in function might reflect early manifestations of AD and provide new insights in the neural activation changes that occur in pathological ageing.

Effects of long-term atorvastatin treatment on cardiac aging

A number of studies have reported that atorvastatin (AVT) may have an important role in the delay of cardiac aging. However, the mechanism by which AVT affects cardiac aging has not been established. In this study, a series of experiments were performed to investigate the effects of AVT treatment on the cardiovascular system and the associated mechanism. Wistar rats were administered AVT or saline for 4 months. Age-related changes in the hearts were measured at the end of the experiment. The results showed that compared with young rats, the aged rats had significant changes indicative of myocardial aging, including increased blood lipid 1evelss, increased body weight, cardiac hypertrophy, larger myocardial cells, irregular muscle fibers, fewer deeply stained nuclei, smaller intercellular spaces, a larger number of apoptotic cells and increased levels of lipofuscin in myocardial tissue. However, long-term AVT treatment was able to significantly delay or even reverse these aging-related changes. In addition, these effects showed a certain dose-dependence. In general, long-term AVT treatment reduces blood lipids, inhibits cardiac hypertrophy, suppresses cardiomyocyte apoptosis and lowers the level of oxidative stress to protect the heart from aging.