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Chung LKH, Jack BN, Griffiths O, Pearson D, Luque D, Harris AWF, Spencer KM, Le Pelley ME, So SHW, Whitford TJ. Neurophysiological evidence of motor preparation in inner speech and the effect of content predictability. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:11556-11569. [PMID: 37943760 PMCID: PMC10751289 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-generated overt actions are preceded by a slow negativity as measured by electroencephalogram, which has been associated with motor preparation. Recent studies have shown that this neural activity is modulated by the predictability of action outcomes. It is unclear whether inner speech is also preceded by a motor-related negativity and influenced by the same factor. In three experiments, we compared the contingent negative variation elicited in a cue paradigm in an active vs. passive condition. In Experiment 1, participants produced an inner phoneme, at which an audible phoneme whose identity was unpredictable was concurrently presented. We found that while passive listening elicited a late contingent negative variation, inner speech production generated a more negative late contingent negative variation. In Experiment 2, the same pattern of results was found when participants were instead asked to overtly vocalize the phoneme. In Experiment 3, the identity of the audible phoneme was made predictable by establishing probabilistic expectations. We observed a smaller late contingent negative variation in the inner speech condition when the identity of the audible phoneme was predictable, but not in the passive condition. These findings suggest that inner speech is associated with motor preparatory activity that may also represent the predicted action-effects of covert actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence K-h Chung
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales (UNSW Sydney), Mathews Building, Library Walk, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 3/F Sino Building, Chung Chi Road, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Bradley N Jack
- Research School of Psychology, Australian National University, Building 39, Science Road, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Oren Griffiths
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Newcastle, Behavioural Sciences Building, University Drive, Callaghan NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Daniel Pearson
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Griffith Taylor Building, Manning Road, Camperdown NSW 2006, Australia
| | - David Luque
- Department of Basic Psychology and Speech Therapy, University of Malaga, Faculty of Psychology, Dr Ortiz Ramos Street, 29010 Malaga, Spain
| | - Anthony W F Harris
- Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, 176 Hawkesbury Road, Westmead NSW 2145, Australia
- Brain Dynamics Centre, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, 176 Hawkesbury Road, Westmead NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Kevin M Spencer
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 150 South Huntington Avenue, Boston MA 02130, United States
| | - Mike E Le Pelley
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales (UNSW Sydney), Mathews Building, Library Walk, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Suzanne H-w So
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 3/F Sino Building, Chung Chi Road, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Thomas J Whitford
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales (UNSW Sydney), Mathews Building, Library Walk, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia
- Brain Dynamics Centre, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, 176 Hawkesbury Road, Westmead NSW 2145, Australia
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Merritt B, Bent T. Revisiting the acoustics of speaker gender perception: A gender expansive perspective. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2022; 151:484. [PMID: 35105035 DOI: 10.1121/10.0009282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Examinations of speaker gender perception have primarily focused on the roles of fundamental frequency (fo) and formant frequencies from structured speech tasks using cisgender speakers. Yet, there is evidence to suggest that fo and formants do not fully account for listeners' perceptual judgements of gender, particularly from connected speech. This study investigated the perceptual importance of fo, formant frequencies, articulation, and intonation in listeners' judgements of gender identity and masculinity/femininity from spontaneous speech from cisgender male and female speakers as well as transfeminine and transmasculine speakers. Stimuli were spontaneous speech samples from 12 speakers who are cisgender (6 female and 6 male) and 12 speakers who are transgender (6 transfeminine and 6 transmasculine). Listeners performed a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) gender identification task and masculinity/femininity rating task in two experiments that manipulated which acoustic cues were available. Experiment 1 confirmed that fo and formant frequency manipulations were insufficient to alter listener judgements across all speakers. Experiment 2 demonstrated that articulatory cues had greater weighting than intonation cues on the listeners' judgements when the fo and formant frequencies were in a gender ambiguous range. These findings counter the assumptions that fo and formant manipulations are sufficient to effectively alter perceived speaker gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Merritt
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA
| | - Tessa Bent
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA
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Abbatecola C, Gerardin P, Beneyton K, Kennedy H, Knoblauch K. The Role of Unimodal Feedback Pathways in Gender Perception During Activation of Voice and Face Areas. Front Syst Neurosci 2021; 15:669256. [PMID: 34122023 PMCID: PMC8194406 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.669256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-modal effects provide a model framework for investigating hierarchical inter-areal processing, particularly, under conditions where unimodal cortical areas receive contextual feedback from other modalities. Here, using complementary behavioral and brain imaging techniques, we investigated the functional networks participating in face and voice processing during gender perception, a high-level feature of voice and face perception. Within the framework of a signal detection decision model, Maximum likelihood conjoint measurement (MLCM) was used to estimate the contributions of the face and voice to gender comparisons between pairs of audio-visual stimuli in which the face and voice were independently modulated. Top–down contributions were varied by instructing participants to make judgments based on the gender of either the face, the voice or both modalities (N = 12 for each task). Estimated face and voice contributions to the judgments of the stimulus pairs were not independent; both contributed to all tasks, but their respective weights varied over a 40-fold range due to top–down influences. Models that best described the modal contributions required the inclusion of two different top–down interactions: (i) an interaction that depended on gender congruence across modalities (i.e., difference between face and voice modalities for each stimulus); (ii) an interaction that depended on the within modalities’ gender magnitude. The significance of these interactions was task dependent. Specifically, gender congruence interaction was significant for the face and voice tasks while the gender magnitude interaction was significant for the face and stimulus tasks. Subsequently, we used the same stimuli and related tasks in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm (N = 12) to explore the neural correlates of these perceptual processes, analyzed with Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM) and Bayesian Model Selection. Results revealed changes in effective connectivity between the unimodal Fusiform Face Area (FFA) and Temporal Voice Area (TVA) in a fashion that paralleled the face and voice behavioral interactions observed in the psychophysical data. These findings explore the role in perception of multiple unimodal parallel feedback pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clement Abbatecola
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France.,Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Peggy Gerardin
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France
| | - Kim Beneyton
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France
| | - Henry Kennedy
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France.,Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Shanghai, China
| | - Kenneth Knoblauch
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France.,National Centre for Optics, Vision and Eye Care, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, University of South-Eastern Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
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Nonverbal auditory communication - Evidence for integrated neural systems for voice signal production and perception. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 199:101948. [PMID: 33189782 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
While humans have developed a sophisticated and unique system of verbal auditory communication, they also share a more common and evolutionarily important nonverbal channel of voice signaling with many other mammalian and vertebrate species. This nonverbal communication is mediated and modulated by the acoustic properties of a voice signal, and is a powerful - yet often neglected - means of sending and perceiving socially relevant information. From the viewpoint of dyadic (involving a sender and a signal receiver) voice signal communication, we discuss the integrated neural dynamics in primate nonverbal voice signal production and perception. Most previous neurobiological models of voice communication modelled these neural dynamics from the limited perspective of either voice production or perception, largely disregarding the neural and cognitive commonalities of both functions. Taking a dyadic perspective on nonverbal communication, however, it turns out that the neural systems for voice production and perception are surprisingly similar. Based on the interdependence of both production and perception functions in communication, we first propose a re-grouping of the neural mechanisms of communication into auditory, limbic, and paramotor systems, with special consideration for a subsidiary basal-ganglia-centered system. Second, we propose that the similarity in the neural systems involved in voice signal production and perception is the result of the co-evolution of nonverbal voice production and perception systems promoted by their strong interdependence in dyadic interactions.
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Uhrig S, Perkis A, Behne DM. Effects of speech transmission quality on sensory processing indicated by the cortical auditory evoked potential. J Neural Eng 2020; 17:046021. [PMID: 32422617 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ab93e1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Degradations of transmitted speech have been shown to affect perceptual and cognitive processing in human listeners, as indicated by the P3 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). However, research suggests that previously observed P3 modulations might actually be traced back to earlier neural modulations in the time range of the P1-N1-P2 complex of the cortical auditory evoked potential (CAEP). This study investigates whether auditory sensory processing, as reflected by the P1-N1-P2 complex, is already systematically altered by speech quality degradations. APPROACH Electrophysiological data from two studies were analyzed to examine effects of speech transmission quality (high-quality, noisy, bandpass-filtered) for spoken words on amplitude and latency parameters of individual P1, N1 and P2 components. MAIN RESULTS In the resultant ERP waveforms, an initial P1-N1-P2 manifested at stimulus onset, while a second N1-P2 occurred within the ongoing stimulus. Bandpass-filtered versus high-quality word stimuli evoked a faster and larger initial N1 as well as a reduced initial P2, hence exhibiting effects as early as the sensory stage of auditory information processing. SIGNIFICANCE The results corroborate the existence of systematic quality-related modulations in the initial N1-P2, which may potentially have carried over into P3 modulations demonstrated by previous studies. In future psychophysiological speech quality assessments, rigorous control procedures are needed to ensure the validity of P3-based indication of speech transmission quality. An alternative CAEP-based assessment approach is discussed, which promises to be more efficient and less constrained than the established approach based on P3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Uhrig
- Quality and Usability Lab, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10587 Berlin, Germany. Department of Electronic Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway. Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed
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Huestegge SM, Raettig T. Crossing Gender Borders: Bidirectional Dynamic Interaction Between Face-Based and Voice-Based Gender Categorization. J Voice 2020; 34:487.e1-487.e9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2018.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Prete G, Fabri M, Foschi N, Tommasi L. Voice gender categorization in the connected and disconnected hemispheres. Soc Neurosci 2020; 15:385-397. [PMID: 32130082 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2020.1734654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The role of the left and right hemispheres in processing the gender of voices is controversial, some evidence suggesting a bilateral involvement, some others suggesting a right-hemispheric superiority. We investigated this issue in a gender categorization task involving healthy participants and a male split-brain patient: female or male natural voices were presented in one ear during the simultaneous presentation of white noise in the other ear (dichotic listening paradigm). Results revealed faster responses by the healthy participants for stimuli presented in the left than in the right ear, although no asymmetries emerged between the two ears in the accuracy of both the patient and the control group. Healthy participants were also more accurate at categorizing female than male voices, and an opposite-gender bias emerged - at least in females - showing faster responses in categorizing voices of the opposite gender. The results support a bilateral hemispheric involvement in voice gender categorization, without asymmetries in the patient, but with a faster categorization when voices are directly presented to the right hemisphere in the healthy sample. Moreover, when the two hemispheres directly interact with one another, a faster categorization of voices of the opposite gender emerges, and it can be an evolutionary grounded bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Prete
- Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara , Chieti, Italy
| | - Mara Fabri
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Neuroscience and Cell Biology Section, Polytechnic University of Marche , Ancona, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Foschi
- Regional Epilepsy Center, Neurological Clinic, "Ospedali Riuniti" , Ancona, Italy
| | - Luca Tommasi
- Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara , Chieti, Italy
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Cueing listeners to attend to a target talker progressively improves word report as the duration of the cue-target interval lengthens to 2,000 ms. Atten Percept Psychophys 2018; 80:1520-1538. [PMID: 29696570 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-018-1531-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous attention is typically studied by presenting instructive cues in advance of a target stimulus array. For endogenous visual attention, task performance improves as the duration of the cue-target interval increases up to 800 ms. Less is known about how endogenous auditory attention unfolds over time or the mechanisms by which an instructive cue presented in advance of an auditory array improves performance. The current experiment used five cue-target intervals (0, 250, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 ms) to compare four hypotheses for how preparatory attention develops over time in a multi-talker listening task. Young adults were cued to attend to a target talker who spoke in a mixture of three talkers. Visual cues indicated the target talker's spatial location or their gender. Participants directed attention to location and gender simultaneously ("objects") at all cue-target intervals. Participants were consistently faster and more accurate at reporting words spoken by the target talker when the cue-target interval was 2,000 ms than 0 ms. In addition, the latency of correct responses progressively shortened as the duration of the cue-target interval increased from 0 to 2,000 ms. These findings suggest that the mechanisms involved in preparatory auditory attention develop gradually over time, taking at least 2,000 ms to reach optimal configuration, yet providing cumulative improvements in speech intelligibility as the duration of the cue-target interval increases from 0 to 2,000 ms. These results demonstrate an improvement in performance for cue-target intervals longer than those that have been reported previously in the visual or auditory modalities.
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Casado-Aranda LA, Martínez-Fiestas M, Sánchez-Fernández J. Neural effects of environmental advertising: An fMRI analysis of voice age and temporal framing. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 206:664-675. [PMID: 29132089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ecological information offered to society through advertising enhances awareness of environmental issues, encourages development of sustainable attitudes and intentions, and can even alter behavior. This paper, by means of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and self-reports, explores the underlying mechanisms of processing ecological messages. The study specifically examines brain and behavioral responses to persuasive ecological messages that differ in temporal framing and in the age of the voice pronouncing them. The findings reveal that attitudes are more positive toward future-framed messages presented by young voices. The whole-brain analysis reveals that future-framed (FF) ecological messages trigger activation in brain areas related to imagery, prospective memories and episodic events, thus reflecting the involvement of past behaviors in future ecological actions. Past-framed messages (PF), in turn, elicit brain activations within the episodic system. Young voices (YV), in addition to triggering stronger activation in areas involved with the processing of high-timbre, high-pitched and high-intensity voices, are perceived as more emotional and motivational than old voices (OV) as activations in anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala. Messages expressed by older voices, in turn, exhibit stronger activation in areas formerly linked to low-pitched voices and voice gender perception. Interestingly, a link is identified between neural and self-report responses indicating that certain brain activations in response to future-framed messages and young voices predicted higher attitudes toward future-framed and young voice advertisements, respectively. The results of this study provide invaluable insight into the unconscious origin of attitudes toward environmental messages and indicate which voice and temporal frame of a message generate the greatest subconscious value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis-Alberto Casado-Aranda
- Department of Marketing and Market Research, University of Granada, Campus Universitario Cartuja, 18071, Granada, Spain.
| | - Myriam Martínez-Fiestas
- Department of Marketing and Market Research, University of Granada, Campus Universitario Cartuja, 18071, Granada, Spain.
| | - Juan Sánchez-Fernández
- Department of Marketing and Market Research, University of Granada, Campus Universitario Cartuja, 18071, Granada, Spain.
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Wu C, Zheng Y, Li J, Wu H, She S, Liu S, Ning Y, Li L. Brain substrates underlying auditory speech priming in healthy listeners and listeners with schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2017; 47:837-852. [PMID: 27894376 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291716002816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Under 'cocktail party' listening conditions, healthy listeners and listeners with schizophrenia can use temporally pre-presented auditory speech-priming (ASP) stimuli to improve target-speech recognition, even though listeners with schizophrenia are more vulnerable to informational speech masking. METHOD Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, this study searched for both brain substrates underlying the unmasking effect of ASP in 16 healthy controls and 22 patients with schizophrenia, and brain substrates underlying schizophrenia-related speech-recognition deficits under speech-masking conditions. RESULTS In both controls and patients, introducing the ASP condition (against the auditory non-speech-priming condition) not only activated the left superior temporal gyrus (STG) and left posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), but also enhanced functional connectivity of the left STG/pMTG with the left caudate. It also enhanced functional connectivity of the left STG/pMTG with the left pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus (TriIFG) in controls and that with the left Rolandic operculum in patients. The strength of functional connectivity between the left STG and left TriIFG was correlated with target-speech recognition under the speech-masking condition in both controls and patients, but reduced in patients. CONCLUSIONS The left STG/pMTG and their ASP-related functional connectivity with both the left caudate and some frontal regions (the left TriIFG in healthy listeners and the left Rolandic operculum in listeners with schizophrenia) are involved in the unmasking effect of ASP, possibly through facilitating the following processes: masker-signal inhibition, target-speech encoding, and speech production. The schizophrenia-related reduction of functional connectivity between the left STG and left TriIFG augments the vulnerability of speech recognition to speech masking.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Wu
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health,Key Laboratory on Machine Perception (Ministry of Education),Peking University,Beijing,People's Republic of China
| | - Y Zheng
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - J Li
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - H Wu
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - S She
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - S Liu
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - Y Ning
- The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University,Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - L Li
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health,Key Laboratory on Machine Perception (Ministry of Education),Peking University,Beijing,People's Republic of China
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Casado A, Brunellière A. The influence of sex information into spoken words: a mismatch negativity (MMN) study. Brain Res 2016; 1650:73-83. [PMID: 27577852 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
When exposed to a spoken message, a listener takes into account several sources of linguistic and indexical information. Using the mismatch negativity (MMN) response, we examined whether the indexical information about the sex of the speaker influenced the processing of semantically gendered spoken words. Female participants listened two semantically gendered French words, one masculine and one feminine representing human beings, said either by five male or by five female speakers. The opposite sex voices produced an enhancement of MMN response. In line with interactive connections between indexical and linguistic information processing through activating lexical memory traces, the results showed more pronounced MMN response when the sex of the speaker matched with the gender of the word. Furthermore, there was a later detection of the incongruence between the sex information about the speaker and the gender of the word, shown by an enhancement of MMN response. Overall, these findings suggest that the listeners integrate the indexical information about the sex of the speakers both at the lexical selection level and at a higher-level processing such as the grammatical access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Casado
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center; Department of Experimental Psychology; University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Angèle Brunellière
- Univ. Lille, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France
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