A whole-brain 3D myeloarchitectonic atlas: Mapping the Vogt-Vogt legacy to the cortical surface

A Comparison of two Maps of the Human Neocortex: the multimodal MRI-based parcellation of Glasser et al. (2016a), and the myeloarchitectonic parcellation of Nieuwenhuys and Broere (2023), as a first step toward a unified, canonical map

The first, introductory part of this paper presents an overview of the long quest for a universal map of the human cortex, useful as a standard reference for all remaining studies on this brain part. It is pointed out that such a map does still not exist, but that systematic comparison of some recently produced 3D maps may well be conducive toward this important goal. Hence, the second part of this article is devoted to a detailed comparison of two of such maps, the multimodal MRI-based parcellation of Glasser et al. (Nature 536:171-178, 2016) and the myeloarchitectonic parcellation presented by Nieuwenhuys and Broere (Brain Struct Funct 228:1549-1559, 2023), with the specific aim to detect areal concordances between these two maps. In the search for these concordances, the following three criteria were used: (1) the relative or topological position of the various areas, (2) the relation of the areas to particular invariant sulci, and (3) the overall myelin content of the areas. In total 61 concordances were detected, most of which were located in the frontal and parietal lobes. These concordances were recorded in standard views of the two maps compared (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8), as well as in Table 1. We consider these findings as a first step towards the creation of a unified, consensus (canonical) parcellation of the human neocortex.

Transcriptomic contributions to a modern cytoarchitectonic parcellation of the human cerebral cortex

Transcriptomic contributions to the anatomical, functional, and network layout of the human cerebral cortex (HCC) have become a major interest in cognitive and systems neuroscience. Here, we tested if transcriptomic differences support a modern, algorithmic cytoarchitectonic parcellation of HCC. Using a data-driven approach, we identified a sparse subset of genes that differentially contributed to the cytoarchitectonic parcellation of HCC. A combined metric of cortical thickness and myelination (CT/M ratio), as well as cell density, correlated with gene expression. Enrichment analyses showed that genes specific to the cytoarchitectonic parcellation of the HCC were related to molecular functions such as transmembrane transport and ion channel activity. Together, the relationship between transcriptomics and cytoarchitecture bridges the gap among (i) gradients at the macro-scale (including thickness and myelination), (ii) areas at the meso-scale, and (iii) cell density at the microscale, as well as supports the recently proposed cortical spectrum theory and structural model.

Towards a biologically annotated brain connectome

The brain is a network of interleaved neural circuits. In modern connectomics, brain connectivity is typically encoded as a network of nodes and edges, abstracting away the rich biological detail of local neuronal populations. Yet biological annotations for network nodes - such as gene expression, cytoarchitecture, neurotransmitter receptors or intrinsic dynamics - can be readily measured and overlaid on network models. Here we review how connectomes can be represented and analysed as annotated networks. Annotated connectomes allow us to reconceptualize architectural features of networks and to relate the connection patterns of brain regions to their underlying biology. Emerging work demonstrates that annotated connectomes help to make more veridical models of brain network formation, neural dynamics and disease propagation. Finally, annotations can be used to infer entirely new inter-regional relationships and to construct new types of network that complement existing connectome representations. In summary, biologically annotated connectomes offer a compelling way to study neural wiring in concert with local biological features.

Neuroanatomical and Functional Dissociations between Variably Present Anterior Lateral Prefrontal Sulci

The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) is an evolutionarily expanded region in humans that is critical for numerous complex functions, many of which are largely hominoid specific. Although recent work shows that the presence or absence of specific sulci in anterior LPFC is associated with cognitive performance across age groups, it is unknown whether the presence of these structures relates to individual differences in the functional organization of LPFC. To fill this gap in knowledge, we leveraged multimodal neuroimaging data from two samples encompassing 82 young adult humans (aged 22-36 years) and show that the dorsal and ventral components of the paraintermediate frontal sulcus, or pimfs, present distinct morphological (surface area), architectural (thickness and myelination), and functional (resting-state connectivity networks) properties. We further contextualize the pimfs components within classic and modern cortical parcellations. Taken together, the dorsal and ventral pimfs components mark transitions in LPFC anatomy and function, across metrics and parcellations. These results emphasize that the pimfs is a critical structure to consider when examining individual differences in the anatomical and functional organization of LPFC and suggest that future individual-level parcellations could benefit from incorporating sulcal anatomy when delineating LPFC cortical regions.

A new 3D myeloarchitectonic map of the human neocortex based on data from the Vogt-Vogt school

During the period extending from 1900 to 1970, Oskar and Cécile Vogt and their numerous collaborators ('the Vogt-Vogt school') published a large number of studies on the myeloarchitecture of the human cerebral cortex. During the last decade, we have concerned ourselves with a detailed meta-analysis of these now almost totally forgotten studies, with the aim to bringing them into the modern era of science. This scrutiny yielded inter alia a myeloarchitectonic map of the human neocortex, showing a parcellation into 182 areas (Nieuwenhuys et al. in Brain Struct Funct 220:2551-2573, 2015; Erratum in Brain Struct Funct 220: 3753-3755, 2015). This map, termed 2D'15, which is based on data derived from all of the 20 publications constituting the myeloarchitectonic legacy of the Vogt-Vogt school, has the limitation that it is two-dimensional i.e. it shows only the parts of the cortex exposed at the free surface of the cerebral hemispheres and not the extensive stretches of cortex hidden in the cortical sulci. However, a limited set of data, derived from four of the 20 publications available, has enabled us to create a 3D map, showing the myeloarchitectonic parcellation of the entire human neocortex. This map, designated as 3D'23, contains 182 areas: 64 frontal, 30 parietal, 6 insular, 19 occipital and 63 temporal. We have also prepared a 2D version (2D'23), of this 3D'23 map to serve as a link between the latter and our original 2D'15 map. Detailed comparison of the parcellations visualized in our three maps (2D'15, 2D'23 and 3D'23) warrants the conclusion that our new 3D'23 map may be considered as representative for the entire myeloarchitectural legacy of the Vogt-Vogt School. Hence it is now possible to compare the rich amount of myeloarchitectonic data assembled by that school directly with the results of current 3D analyses of the architecture of the human cortex, such as the meticulous quantitative cyto- and receptor architectonic studies of Zilles, Amunts and their numerous associates (Amunts et al. in Science 369:988-992, 2020), and the multimodal parcellation of the human cortex based on magnetic resonance images from the Human Connectome Project, performed by Glasser et al. in Nature 536:171-178, 2016).

Neuroanatomical and functional dissociations between variably present anterior lateral prefrontal sulci

The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) is an evolutionarily expanded region in humans that is critical for numerous complex functions, many of which are largely hominoid-specific. While recent work shows that the presence or absence of specific sulci in anterior LPFC is associated with cognitive performance across age groups, it is unknown whether the presence of these structures relates to individual differences in the functional organization of LPFC. To fill this gap in knowledge, we leveraged multimodal neuroimaging data from 72 young adult humans aged 22-36 and show that dorsal and ventral components of the paraintermediate frontal sulcus (pimfs) present distinct morphological (surface area), architectural (thickness and myelination), and functional (resting-state connectivity networks) properties. We further contextualize the pimfs components within classic and modern cortical parcellations. Taken together, the dorsal and ventral pimfs components mark transitions in anatomy and function in LPFC, across metrics and parcellations. These results emphasize that the pimfs is a critical structure to consider when examining individual differences in the anatomical and functional organization of LPFC and highlight the importance of considering individual anatomy when investigating structural and functional features of the cortex.

Multi-tensor diffusion abnormalities of gray matter in an animal model of cortical dysplasia

Focal cortical dysplasias are a type of malformations of cortical development that are a common cause of drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Surgical treatment is a viable option for some of these patients, with their outcome being highly related to complete surgical resection of lesions visible in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, subtle lesions often go undetected on conventional imaging. Several methods to analyze MRI have been proposed, with the common goal of rendering subtle cortical lesions visible. However, most image-processing methods are targeted to detect the macroscopic characteristics of cortical dysplasias, which do not always correspond to the microstructural disarrangement of these cortical malformations. Quantitative analysis of diffusion-weighted MRI (dMRI) enables the inference of tissue characteristics, and novel methods provide valuable microstructural features of complex tissue, including gray matter. We investigated the ability of advanced dMRI descriptors to detect diffusion abnormalities in an animal model of cortical dysplasia. For this purpose, we induced cortical dysplasia in 18 animals that were scanned at 30 postnatal days (along with 19 control animals). We obtained multi-shell dMRI, to which we fitted single and multi-tensor representations. Quantitative dMRI parameters derived from these methods were queried using a curvilinear coordinate system to sample the cortical mantle, providing inter-subject anatomical correspondence. We found region- and layer-specific diffusion abnormalities in experimental animals. Moreover, we were able to distinguish diffusion abnormalities related to altered intra-cortical tangential fibers from those associated with radial cortical fibers. Histological examinations revealed myelo-architectural abnormalities that explain the alterations observed through dMRI. The methods for dMRI acquisition and analysis used here are available in clinical settings and our work shows their clinical relevance to detect subtle cortical dysplasias through analysis of their microstructural properties.

Myeloarchitectonic maps of the human cerebral cortex registered to surface and sections of a standard atlas brain

C. and O. Vogt had set up a research program with the aim of establishing a detailed cartography of the medullary fiber distribution of the human brain. As part of this program, around 200 cortical fields were differentiated based on their myeloarchitectural characteristics and mapped with regard to their exact location in the isocortex. The typical features were graphically documented and classified by a sophisticated linguistic coding. Their results have only recently received adequate attention and applications. The reasons for the revival of this spectrum of their research include interest in the myeloarchitecture of the cortex as a differentiating feature of the cortex architecture and function, as well as the importance for advanced imaging methodologies, particularly tractography and molecular imaging. Here, we describe our approach to exploit the original work of the Vogts and their co-workers to construct a myeloarchitectonic map that is referenced to the Atlas of the Human Brain (AHB) in standard space. We developed a semi-automatic pipeline for processing and integrating the various original maps into a single coherent map. To optimize the precision of the registration between the published maps and the AHB, we augmented the maps with topographic landmarks of the brains that were originally analyzed. Registration of all maps into the AHB opened several possibilities. First, for the majority of the fields, multiple maps from different authors are available, which allows for sophisticated statistical integration, for example, unification with a label-fusion technique. Second, each field in the myeloarchitectonic surface map can be visualized on the myelin-stained cross-section of the AHB at the best possible correspondence. The features of each field can be correlated with the fiber-stained cross-sections in the AHB and with the extensive published materials from the Vogt school and, if necessary, corrected. Third, mapping to the AHB allows the relationship between fiber characteristics of the cortex and the subcortex to be examined. Fourth, the cytoarchitectonic maps from Brodmann and von Economo and Koskinas, which are also registered to the AHB, can be compared. This option allows the study of the correspondence between cyto- and myeloarchitecture in each field. Finally, by using our "stripe" technology - where any other feature registered to the same space can be directly compared owing to the linear and parallel representation of the correlated cortex segments - this map becomes part of a multidimensional co-registration platform.