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Kho PF, Wary N, Zanetti D, Abbasi F, Knowles JW, Panyard DJ, Watson KT, RISC Investigators, Stell L, Lazzeroni LC, Gustafsson S, Lind L, Petrie JR, Assimes TL. Cross-sectional, interventional, and causal investigation of insulin sensitivity using plasma proteomics in diverse populations. Metabolism 2025; 169:156263. [PMID: 40221021 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2025.156263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2025] [Accepted: 04/03/2025] [Indexed: 04/14/2025]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously reported significant correlations between a direct measure of insulin sensitivity (IS) and blood levels of proteins measured using the Proximity Extension Assay (PEA) in two European cohorts. However, protein correlations with IS within non-European populations, in response to short-term interventions that improve IS, and any causal associations with IS have not yet been established. METHODS We measured 1470 proteins using the PEA in the plasma of 1015 research participants at Stanford University who underwent one or more direct measures of IS. Association analyses were carried out with multivariable linear regression within and across Stanford subgroups and within each of the two European cohorts. Association statistics were also meta-analyzed after transformation and harmonization of the two direct measures of IS. Lastly, we performed genome-wide association studies of IS and used genetic instruments of plasma proteins from the UK Biobank to identify candidate causal proteins for IS through Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis. RESULTS In age and sex adjusted model, 810 proteins were associated with baseline IS among 652 self-reported European participants in the Stanford cohort at a false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05. Effect sizes for these proteins were highly correlated with those observed in 122 South Asian, 92 East Asian, 85 Hispanic, and 52 Black/African American persons (r = 0.68 to 0.83, all P ≤ 4.3 × 10-113). Meta-analysis of the full Stanford cohort with the two European cohorts (N = 2945) yielded 247 significant protein associations (FDR < 0.05), with 50 remaining significant after further adjustment for body mass index. In a subset of Stanford participants undergoing insulin sensitizing interventions (N = 53 taking thiazolidinediones, N = 66 with weight loss), 79.3 % of protein level changes were directionally consistent with the respective baseline association (observed/expected p = 6.0 × 10-16). MR analyses identified ten candidate causal proteins for IS, among which were SELE and ASGR1, proteins with established drug targets currently under investigation. CONCLUSION Plasma proteins measured using the PEA provide a robust signature for IS across diverse populations and after short-term insulin sensitizing interventions highlighting their potential value as universal biomarkers of insulin resistance. A small subset of markers provided insights into potential causal molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pik Fang Kho
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Neil Wary
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Daniela Zanetti
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research (IRGB), National Research Council (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Fahim Abbasi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Joshua W Knowles
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Daniel J Panyard
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Katie T Watson
- Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University School of Medicine, United States
| | | | - Laurel Stell
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Laura C Lazzeroni
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | | | - Lars Lind
- Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - John R Petrie
- School of Health and Wellbeing, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Themistocles L Assimes
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States.
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Stojilkovic SS, Sokanovic SJ, Constantin S. What is known and unknown about the role of neuroendocrine genes Ptprn and Ptprn2. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2025; 16:1531723. [PMID: 39926347 PMCID: PMC11802530 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2025.1531723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2025] [Indexed: 02/11/2025] Open
Abstract
The protein tyrosine phosphatase receptors N and N2 are encoded by the Ptprn and Ptprn2 genes expressed in neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and diffuse neuroendocrine system, including the pancreas, lung, and intestine. Unlike other members of the protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor family, PTPRN and PTPRN2 lack protein tyrosine phosphatase activity due to mutation of two residues in their intracellular catalytic domains. However, during evolution these proteins acquired new cellular roles beyond tyrosine dephosphorylation in the centralized and diffuse neuroendocrine systems. Here we discuss the current understanding and lack of information about the actions of these proteins, focusing on neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and pancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanko S. Stojilkovic
- Section on Cellular Signaling, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Kho PF, Wary N, Zanetti D, Abbasi F, Knowles JW, Panyard DJ, Watson KT, Stell L, Lazzeroni LC, Gustafsson S, Lind L, Petrie JR, Assimes TL. Cross-sectional, interventional, and causal investigation of insulin sensitivity using plasma proteomics in diverse populations. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2024.11.09.24317011. [PMID: 39606342 PMCID: PMC11601714 DOI: 10.1101/2024.11.09.24317011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2024]
Abstract
Background We previously reported significant correlations between a direct measure of insulin sensitivity (IS) and blood levels of proteins measured using the Proximity Extension Assay (PEA) in two European cohorts. However, protein correlations with IS within non-European populations, in response to short-term interventions that improve IS, and any causal associations with IS have not yet been established. Methods We measured 1,470 proteins using the PEA in the plasma of 1,015 research participants at Stanford University who underwent one or more direct measures of IS. Association analyses were carried out with multivariable linear regression within and across Stanford subgroups and within each of the two European cohorts. Association statistics were also meta-analyzed after transformation and harmonization of the two direct measures of IS. Lastly, we performed genome-wide association studies of IS and used genetic instruments of plasma proteins from the UK Biobank to identify candidate causal proteins for IS through Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis. Results In age and sex adjusted model, 810 proteins were associated with baseline IS among 652 self-reported European participants in the Stanford cohort at a false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05. Effect sizes for these proteins were highly correlated with those observed in 122 South Asian, 92 East Asian, 85 Hispanic, and 52 Black/African American persons (r= 0.68 to 0.83, all P≤4.3×10-113). Meta-analysis of the full Stanford cohort with the two European cohorts (N=2,945) yielded 247 significant protein associations (FDR < 0.05), with 75 remaining significant after further adjustment for body mass index. In a subset of Stanford participants undergoing insulin sensitizing interventions (N=53 taking thiazolidinediones, N=66 with weight loss), 79.6% of protein level changes were directionally consistent with the respective baseline association (observed/expected p=6.7×10-16). MR analyses identified eight candidate causal proteins for IS, among which were SELE and ASGR1, proteins with established drug targets currently under investigation. Conclusion Plasma proteins measured using the PEA provide a robust signature for IS across diverse populations and after short-term insulin sensitizing interventions highlighting their potential value as universal biomarkers of insulin resistance. A small subset of markers provided insights into potential causal molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pik Fang Kho
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Neil Wary
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Daniela Zanetti
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research (IRGB), National Research Council (CNR), Cagliari, Italy
| | - Fahim Abbasi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Joshua W. Knowles
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Daniel J. Panyard
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Katie T. Watson
- Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University School of Medicine
| | - Laurel Stell
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Laura C. Lazzeroni
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | | | - Lars Lind
- Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - John R Petrie
- School of Health and Wellbeing, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Themistocles L. Assimes
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
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Diehl MM, Moscarello JM, Trask S. Behavioral outputs and overlapping circuits between conditional fear and active avoidance. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2024; 213:107943. [PMID: 38821256 PMCID: PMC11956751 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2024.107943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 05/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Aversive learning can produce a wide variety of defensive behavioral responses depending on the circumstances, ranging from reactive responses like freezing to proactive avoidance responses. While most of this initial learning is behaviorally supported by an expectancy of an aversive outcome and neurally supported by activity within the basolateral amygdala, activity in other brain regions become necessary for the execution of defensive strategies that emerge in other aversive learning paradigms such as active avoidance. Here, we review the neural circuits that support both reactive and proactive defensive behaviors that are motivated by aversive learning, and identify commonalities between the neural substrates of these distinct (and often exclusive) behavioral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Diehl
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | | | - Sydney Trask
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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Harrison NJ, Connolly E, Gascón Gubieda A, Yang Z, Altenhein B, Losada Perez M, Moreira M, Sun J, Hidalgo A. Regenerative neurogenic response from glia requires insulin-driven neuron-glia communication. eLife 2021; 10:58756. [PMID: 33527895 PMCID: PMC7880684 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how injury to the central nervous system induces de novo neurogenesis in animals would help promote regeneration in humans. Regenerative neurogenesis could originate from glia and glial neuron-glia antigen-2 (NG2) may sense injury-induced neuronal signals, but these are unknown. Here, we used Drosophila to search for genes functionally related to the NG2 homologue kon-tiki (kon), and identified Islet Antigen-2 (Ia-2), required in neurons for insulin secretion. Both loss and over-expression of ia-2 induced neural stem cell gene expression, injury increased ia-2 expression and induced ectopic neural stem cells. Using genetic analysis and lineage tracing, we demonstrate that Ia-2 and Kon regulate Drosophila insulin-like peptide 6 (Dilp-6) to induce glial proliferation and neural stem cells from glia. Ectopic neural stem cells can divide, and limited de novo neurogenesis could be traced back to glial cells. Altogether, Ia-2 and Dilp-6 drive a neuron-glia relay that restores glia and reprogrammes glia into neural stem cells for regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neale J Harrison
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth Connolly
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alicia Gascón Gubieda
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Zidan Yang
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Maria Losada Perez
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Moreira
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jun Sun
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alicia Hidalgo
- Structural Plasticity & Regeneration Group, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Diehl MM, Bravo-Rivera C, Quirk GJ. The study of active avoidance: A platform for discussion. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:229-237. [PMID: 31509767 PMCID: PMC6936221 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Traditional active avoidance tasks have advanced the field of aversive learning and memory for decades and are useful for studying simple avoidance responses in isolation; however, these tasks have limited clinical relevance because they do not model several key features of clinical avoidance. In contrast, platform-mediated avoidance (PMA) more closely resembles clinical avoidance because the response i) is associated with an unambiguous safe location, ii) is not associated with an artificial termination of the warning signal, and iii) is associated with a decision-based appetitive cost. Recent findings on the neuronal circuits of PMA have confirmed that amygdala-striatal circuits are essential for avoidance. In PMA, however, the prelimbic cortex facilitates the avoidance response early during the warning signal, perhaps through disinhibition of the striatum. Future studies on avoidance should account for additional factors such as sex differences and social interactions that will advance our understanding of maladaptive avoidance contributing to neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Diehl
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR, 00936, Puerto Rico; Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506 United States
| | | | - Gregory J Quirk
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR, 00936, Puerto Rico.
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Lee S. The association of genetically controlled CpG methylation (cg158269415) of protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type N2 (PTPRN2) with childhood obesity. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4855. [PMID: 30890718 PMCID: PMC6425015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40486-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type N2 (PTPRN2) encodes a major islet autoantigen in type-1 diabetes. Previous genetic studies have shown its significant association with obesity. PTPRN2 plays an important role in epigenetic regulation of metabolic diseases and cancers. We investigated CpG methylations (cg17429772 and cg158269415) in PTPRN2 by pyrosequencing from blood samples of childhood obesity (n = 638). cg158269415 had significant positive correlations with body mass index (BMI) and waist-hip ratio (WHR). Case-control analysis showed that cg158269415 methylation in blood sample was significantly more hypermethylated in obese cases (n = 252), an average of 2.93% more than that that in controls (n = 386). The cg158269415 methylation has a trimodal distribution pattern with strong dependency on nearby located rs1670344 G > A genotype. Correlations of cg158269415 with BMI and WHR were significant and strong in major G allele carriers (GG + GA). Our study showed that an epigenetic association of PTPRN2 gene with childhood obesity was under certain genetic background. The genetic and epigenetic interplay of PTPRN2 gene may implicate a mechanism of childhood obesity. Whether these small changes in DNA methylation from whole blood are causally or consequently related to childhood obesity outcome and their clinical relevance remains to be determined. However, this study presents a promising obesity risk marker that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Lee
- Center for Genome Science, National Institute of Health, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-951, Republic of Korea.
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Cai T, Notkins AL. Pathophysiologic changes in IA-2/IA-2β null mice are secondary to alterations in the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters. Acta Diabetol 2016; 53:7-12. [PMID: 25861885 PMCID: PMC5243143 DOI: 10.1007/s00592-015-0750-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
IA-2 and IA-2β are transmembrane proteins of dense-core vesicles (DCV). The deletion of these proteins results in a reduction in the number of DCV and the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters. As a result, this leads to a variety of pathophysiologic changes. The purpose of this review is to describe these changes, which are characterized by glucose intolerance, female infertility, behavior and learning abnormalities and alterations in the diurnal circadian rhythms of blood pressure, heart rate, spontaneous physical activity and body temperature. These findings show that the deletion of IA-2 and IA-2β results in multiple pathophysiologic changes and represents a unique in vivo model for studying the effect of hormone and neurotransmitter reduction on known and still unrecognized targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Cai
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), B30/Rm106, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Abner L Notkins
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), National Institutes of Health (NIH), B30/Rm106, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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Xu H, Abuhatzira L, Carmona GN, Vadrevu S, Satin LS, Notkins AL. The Ia-2β intronic miRNA, miR-153, is a negative regulator of insulin and dopamine secretion through its effect on the Cacna1c gene in mice. Diabetologia 2015; 58:2298-306. [PMID: 26141787 PMCID: PMC6754265 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-015-3683-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS miR-153 is an intronic miRNA embedded in the genes that encode IA-2 (also known as PTPRN) and IA-2β (also known as PTPRN2). Islet antigen (IA)-2 and IA-2β are major autoantigens in type 1 diabetes and are important transmembrane proteins in dense core and synaptic vesicles. miR-153 and its host genes are co-regulated in pancreas and brain. The present experiments were initiated to decipher the regulatory network between miR-153 and its host gene Ia-2β (also known as Ptprn2). METHODS Insulin secretion was determined by ELISA. Identification of miRNA targets was assessed using luciferase assays and by quantitative real-time PCR and western blots in vitro and in vivo. Target protector was also employed to evaluate miRNA target function. RESULTS Functional studies revealed that miR-153 mimic suppresses both glucose- and potassium-induced insulin secretion (GSIS and PSIS, respectively), whereas miR-153 inhibitor enhances both GSIS and PSIS. A similar effect on dopamine secretion also was observed. Using miRNA target prediction software, we found that miR-153 is predicted to target the 3'UTR region of the calcium channel gene, Cacna1c. Further studies confirmed that Cacna1c mRNA and protein are downregulated by miR-153 mimics and upregulated by miR-153 inhibitors in insulin-secreting freshly isolated mouse islets, in the insulin-secreting mouse cell line MIN6 and in the dopamine-secreting cell line PC12. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION miR-153 is a negative regulator of both insulin and dopamine secretion through its effect on Cacna1c expression, which suggests that IA-2β and miR-153 have opposite functional effects on the secretory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanyu Xu
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Liron Abuhatzira
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Gilberto N Carmona
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Suryakiran Vadrevu
- Brehm Diabetes Research Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Leslie S Satin
- Brehm Diabetes Research Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Abner L Notkins
- Experimental Medicine Section, Laboratory of Sensory Biology, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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