Lipid-based core-shell nanoparticles: Evolution and potentialities in drug delivery

Updated Review of Metal Nanoparticles Fabricated by Green Chemistry Using Natural Extracts: Biosynthesis, Mechanisms, and Applications

Metallic nanoparticles have found wide applications due to their unique physical and chemical properties. Green biosynthesis using plants, microbes, and plant/microbial extracts provides an environmentally friendly approach for nanoparticle synthesis. This review discusses the mechanisms and factors governing the biosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles such as silver, gold, and zinc using various plant extracts and microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae. The phytochemicals and biomolecules responsible for reducing metal ions and stabilizing nanoparticles are discussed. Key process parameters like pH, temperature, and precursor concentration affecting particle size are highlighted. Characterization techniques for confirming the formation and properties of nanoparticles are also mentioned. Applications of biosynthesized nanoparticles in areas such as antibacterial delivery, cancer therapy, biosensors, and environmental remediation are reviewed. Challenges in scaling up production and regulating nanoparticle properties are addressed. Power Point 365 was used for creating graphics. Overall, green biosynthesis is an emerging field with opportunities for developing eco-friendly nanomanufacturing platforms using abundant natural resources. Further work on optimizing conditions, standardizing protocols, and exploring new biosources is needed to realize the full potential of this approach.

Hybrid nanostructures for neurodegenerative disease theranostics: the art in the combination of biomembrane and non-biomembrane nanostructures

The diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) remains challenging, and existing therapeutic approaches demonstrate little efficacy. NDD drug delivery can be achieved through the utilization of nanostructures, hence enabling multimodal NDD theranostics. Nevertheless, both biomembrane and non-biomembrane nanostructures possess intrinsic shortcomings that must be addressed by hybridization to create novel nanostructures with versatile applications in NDD theranostics. Hybrid nanostructures display improved biocompatibility, inherent targeting capabilities, intelligent responsiveness, and controlled drug release. This paper provides a concise overview of the latest developments in hybrid nanostructures for NDD theranostics and emphasizes various engineering methodologies for the integration of diverse nanostructures, including liposomes, exosomes, cell membranes, and non-biomembrane nanostructures such as polymers, metals, and hydrogels. The use of a combination technique can significantly augment the precision, intelligence, and efficacy of hybrid nanostructures, therefore functioning as a more robust theranostic approach for NDDs. This paper also addresses the issues that arise in the therapeutic translation of hybrid nanostructures and explores potential future prospects in this field.

Small-angle X-ray scattering unveils the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles own a remarkable potential in nanomedicine, only partially disclosed. While the clinical use of liposomes and cationic lipid-nucleic acid complexes is well-established, liquid lipid nanoparticles (nanoemulsions), solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers have even greater possibilities. However, they face obstacles in being used in clinics due to a lack of understanding about the molecular mechanisms controlling their drug loading and release, interactions with the biological environment (such as the protein corona), and shelf-life stability. To create effective drug delivery carriers and successfully translate bench research to clinical settings, it is crucial to have a thorough understanding of the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles. Through synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering experiments, we determined the spatial distribution and internal structure of the nanoparticles' lipid, surfactant, and the bound water in them. The nanoparticles themselves have a barrel-like shape that consists of coplanar lipid platelets (specifically cetyl palmitate) that are covered by loosely spaced polysorbate 80 surfactant molecules, whose polar heads retain a large amount of bound water. To reduce the interface cost of bound water with unbound water without stacking, the platelets collapse onto each other. This internal structure challenges the classical core-shell model typically used to describe solid lipid nanoparticles and could play a significant role in drug loading and release, biological fluid interaction, and nanoparticle stability, making our findings valuable for the rational design of lipid-based nanoparticles.

Catechin-Functionalized Cationic Lipopolymer Based Multicomponent Nanomicelles for Lung-Targeting Delivery

Catechins from green tea are one of the most effective natural compounds for cancer chemoprevention and have attracted extensive research. Cancer cell-selective apoptosis-inducing properties of catechins depend on efficient intracellular delivery. However, the low bioavailability limits the application of catechins. Herein, a nano-scaled micellar composite composed of catechin-functionalized cationic lipopolymer and serum albumin is constructed. Cationic liposomes tend to accumulate in the pulmonary microvasculature due to electrostatic effects and are able to deliver the micellar system intracellularly, thus improving the bioavailability of catechins. Albumin in the system acts as a biocompatible anti-plasma absorbent, forming complexes with positively charged lipopolymer under electrostatic interactions, contributing to prolonged in vivo retention. The physicochemical properties of the nano-micellar complexes are characterized, and the antitumor properties of catechin-functionalized materials are confirmed by reactive oxygen species (ROS), caspase-3, and cell apoptosis measurements. The role of each functional module, cationic polymeric liposome, and albumin is revealed by cell penetration, in vivo animal assays, etc. This multicomponent micellar nanocomposite has the potential to become an effective vehicle for the treatment of lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung tumors, sepsis-induced lung injury, etc. This study also demonstrates that it is a great strategy to create a delivery system that is both tissue-targeted and biologically active by combining cationic liposomes with the native bioactive compound catechins.

Targeted Delivery of Pennyroyal via Methotrexate Functionalized PEGylated Nanostructured Lipid Carriers into Breast Cancer Cells; A Multiple Pathways Apoptosis Activator

Purpose

Pennyroyal is a species of the Lamiaceae family with potent anti-cancer and antioxidant properties. Combining this antioxidant with chemotherapeutic agents enhances the effectiveness of these agents by inducing more apoptosis in cancerous cells.

Methods

Here, methotrexate (MTX) combined with pennyroyal oil based on PEGylated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) was assessed. These nanoparticles were physiochemically characterized, and their anti-cancer effects and targeting efficiency were investigated on the folate receptor-positive human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and negative human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549).

Results

Results showed a mean size of 97.4 ± 12.1 nm for non-targeted PEGylated NLCs and 220.4 ± 11.4 nm for targeted PEGylated NLCs, with an almost small size distribution assessed by TEM imaging. Furthermore, in vitro molecular anti-cancer activity investigations showed that pennyroyal-NLCs and pennyroyal-NLCs/MTX activate the apoptosis and autophagy pathway by changing their related mRNA expression levels. Furthermore, in vitro cellular studies showed that these changes in the level of gene expression could lead to a rise in apoptosis rate from 15.6 ± 8.1 to 25.0 ± 3.2 (P<0.05) for the MCF-7 cells treated with pennyroyal-NLCs and pennyroyal-NLCs/MTX, respectively. Autophagy and reactive oxygen species (ROS) cellular evaluation indicated that treating the cells with pennyroyal-NLCs and pennyroyal-NLCs/MTX could significantly increase their intensity in these cells.

Conclusion

Our results present a new NLCs-based approach to enhance the delivery of pennyroyal and MTX to cancerous breast tissues.

Application of the Ugi reaction for preparation of submicron capsules based on sugar beet pectin

The Ugi four-component condensation in diluted liposomal suspensions was used to prepare pectin-based submicron capsules. A set of isocyanides and aldehydes was used to optimize the synthesis of capsule shells. Modified sugar beet pectin was selected as a natural polymer with pronounced surface activity to create a capsule shell. At first, liposomal composition was optimized in order to select suitable conditions for capsule formation. Then, the wide set of capsules constructed on modified sugar beet pectin scaffold has been synthesized. The choice was determined by level of substitution degree and possible chemical diversity of the modified surface. Detailed characterization of products has been performed for polysaccharide particles with liposomal core prepared with various processing parameters (concentration, cross-linking components, the density of linkage). The chemical structure, average size, polydispersity index, morphology, stability, and cytotoxicity of obtained particles have been investigated in dependence on the shell content. The obtained submicrometer cross-linked capsules (220-240 nm) with controlled colloidal properties showed high stability and low toxicity. Thus, the proposed carriers have a great potential as sustained drug delivery systems for different administration routes.

Nanocarriers: A Reliable Tool for the Delivery of Anticancer Drugs

Nanomedicines have gained popularity due to their potential therapeutic applications, especially cancer treatment. Targeted nanoparticles can deliver drugs directly to cancer cells and enable prolonged drug release, reducing off-target toxicity and increasing therapeutic efficacy. However, translating nanomedicines from preclinical to clinical settings has been difficult. Rapid advancements in nanotechnology promise to enhance cancer therapies. Nanomedicine offers advanced targeting and multifunctionality. Nanoparticles (NPs) have several uses nowadays. They have been studied as drug transporters, tumor gene delivery agents, and imaging contrast agents. Nanomaterials based on organic, inorganic, lipid, or glycan substances and synthetic polymers have been used to enhance cancer therapies. This review focuses on polymeric nanoparticle delivery strategies for anticancer nanomedicines.

In Vivo Evaluation of an Antibody-Functionalized Lipoidal Nanosystem for Schistosomiasis Intervention

This study employed nanotechnological techniques to design and develop a praziquantel nanoliposomal (NLP) system and surface-functionalized the NLP with anti-calpain antibody (anti-calpain-NLP) for targeted praziquantel (PZQ) delivery in the treatment of schistosomiasis. Anti-calpain-NLPs were prepared and validated for their physicochemical parameters, in vitro and in vivo toxicity, drug entrapment efficiency (DEE), drug loading capacity (DLC), drug release, and parasitological cure rate. The particle sizes for the formulated nanoliposomes ranged from 88.3 to 92.7 nm (PDI = 0.17–0.35), and zeta potential ranged from −20.2 to −31.9 mV. The DLC and DEE ranged from 9.03 to 14.16 and 92.07 to 94.63, respectively. The functionalization of the nanoliposome surface was stable, uniform, and spherical. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), thermal behavior and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) analysis confirmed that the anti-calpain antibody and PZQ were attached to the surface and the nanoliposomes inner core, respectively. The drug sustained release was shown to be 93.2 and 91.1% within 24 h for NLP and anti-calpain-NLP, respectively. In the in vitro analysis study, the nanoliposome concentrations range of 30 to 120 μg/mL employed revealed acceptable levels of cell viability, with no significant cytotoxic effects on RAW 264.7 murine macrophage as well as 3T3 human fibroblast cells. Biochemical markers and histopathological analysis showed that the formulated nanoliposomes present no or minimal oxidative stress and confer hepatoprotective effects on the animals. The cure rate of the anti-calpain-NLP and PZQ was assessed by parasitological analysis, and it was discovered that treatment with 250 mg/kg anti-calpain-NLP demonstrated greater activity on the total worm burden, and ova count for both the juvenile and adult schistosomes in the intestine and liver of infected mice. The findings so obtained supported the ability of oral anti-calpain-NLP to target young and adult schistosomes in the liver and porto-mesenteric locations, resulting in improved effectiveness of PZQ.

Recent Advances in the Surface Functionalization of PLGA-Based Nanomedicines

Therapeutics are habitually characterized by short plasma half-lives and little affinity for targeted cells. To overcome these challenges, nanoparticulate systems have entered into the disease arena. Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) is one of the most relevant biocompatible materials to construct drug nanocarriers. Understanding the physical chemistry of this copolymer and current knowledge of its biological fate will help in engineering efficient PLGA-based nanomedicines. Surface modification of the nanoparticle structure has been proposed as a required functionalization to optimize the performance in biological systems and to localize the PLGA colloid into the site of action. In this review, a background is provided on the properties and biodegradation of the copolymer. Methods to formulate PLGA nanoparticles, as well as their in vitro performance and in vivo fate, are briefly discussed. In addition, a special focus is placed on the analysis of current research in the use of surface modification strategies to engineer PLGA nanoparticles, i.e., PEGylation and the use of PEG alternatives, surfactants and lipids to improve in vitro and in vivo stability and to create hydrophilic shells or stealth protection for the nanoparticle. Finally, an update on the use of ligands to decorate the surface of PLGA nanomedicines is included in the review.

Supramolecular lipid nanoparticles as delivery carriers for non-invasive cancer theranostics

Nanotheranostics is an emerging frontier of personalized medicine research particularly for cancer, which is the second leading cause of death. Supramolecular aspects in theranostics are quite allured to achieve more regulation and controlled features. Supramolecular nanotheranostics architecture is focused on engineering of modular supramolecular assemblies benefitting from their mutable and stimuli-responsive properties which confer an ultimate potential for the fabrication of unified innovative nanomedicines with controlled features. Amalgamation of supramolecular approaches to nano-based features further equip the potential of designing novel approaches to overcome limitations seen by the conventional theranostic strategies, for curing even the lethal diseases and endowing personalized therapeutics with optimistic prognosis, endorsing their clinical translation. Among many potential nanocarriers for theranostics, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown various promising advances in theranostics and their formulation can be tailored for several applications. Despite the great advancement in cancer nanotheranostics, there are still many challenges that need to be highlighted to fill the literature gap. For this purpose, herein, we have presented a systematic overview on the subject and proposed LNPs as the potential material to manage cancer via non-invasive approaches by highlighting the use of supramolecular approaches to make them robust for cancer theranostics. We have concluded the review by entailing the future perspectives of lipid nanotheranostics towards clinical translation.

Overview of polyethylene glycol-based materials with a special focus on core-shell particles for drug delivery application

Polyethylene glycols (PEG) are water-soluble nonionic polymeric molecules. PEG and PEG-based materials are used for various important applications such as solvents, adhesives, adsorbents, drug delivery agents, tissue engineering scaffolds, etc. The coating of nanoparticles with PEG forms core-shell nanoparticles. The PEG-based core-shell nanoparticles are synthesized for the development of high-quality drug delivery systems. In the present review, we first explained the basics and various applications of PEGs and PEG-based composites materials and then concentrated on the PEG-based core-shell nanoparticles for biomedical applications specifically their use in drug delivery.

Recent advances in polymer shell oily-core nanocapsules for drug-delivery applications

Polymeric nanocapsules are vesicular drug-delivery systems composed of an inner oily reservoir surrounded by polymeric membranes. Nanocapsules have various advantages over other nanovesicular systems such as providing controlled drug release properties. We discuss the recent advances in polymeric shell oily-core nanocapsules, illustrating the different types of polymers used and their implementation. Nanocapsules can be utilized for many purposes, especially encapsulation of highly lipophilic drugs. They have been shown to have variable applications, especially in cancer therapy, due to the ability of the polymeric shell to direct the loaded drugs to their target sites, as well as their high internalization efficacy. Those productive applications guaranteed their high potential as drug-delivery systems. However, their clinical development is still in an early stage.

Nanomedicine-based technologies and novel biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer's disease: from current to future challenges

Increasing life expectancy has led to an aging population, which has consequently increased the prevalence of dementia. Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia worldwide, is estimated to make up 50-80% of all cases. AD cases are expected to reach 131 million by 2050, and this increasing prevalence will critically burden economies and health systems in the next decades. There is currently no treatment that can stop or reverse disease progression. In addition, the late diagnosis of AD constitutes a major obstacle to effective disease management. Therefore, improved diagnostic tools and new treatments for AD are urgently needed. In this review, we investigate and describe both well-established and recently discovered AD biomarkers that could potentially be used to detect AD at early stages and allow the monitoring of disease progression. Proteins such as NfL, MMPs, p-tau217, YKL-40, SNAP-25, VCAM-1, and Ng / BACE are some of the most promising biomarkers because of their successful use as diagnostic tools. In addition, we explore the most recent molecular strategies for an AD therapeutic approach and nanomedicine-based technologies, used to both target drugs to the brain and serve as devices for tracking disease progression diagnostic biomarkers. State-of-the-art nanoparticles, such as polymeric, lipid, and metal-based, are being widely investigated for their potential to improve the effectiveness of both conventional drugs and novel compounds for treating AD. The most recent studies on these nanodevices are deeply explained and discussed in this review.

Biocompatible magnetic gelatin nanoparticles with enhanced MRI contrast performance prepared by single-step desolvation method

Magnetic nanoparticles are versatile materials that have boosted the development of different biomedical applications, being superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles a milestone in the field, after achieving clinical approval as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (Feridex®), magnetic hyperthermia agents for oncological treatments (NanoTherm®), or iron deficiency supplement (Feraheme®). However, its potential as theragnostic agent could be further expanded by its encapsulation within a biodegradable hydrogel, capable of enhancing the biocompatibility and loading abilities, to simultaneously carry drugs, radiotracers, or biomolecules. Gelatin, is a natural biopolymer with optimal in vivo feature and gelling capacity that has been extensively used for decades in pharmaceuticals. In this work, we have addressed the preparation of gelatin nanoparticles, bare and loaded with magnetite nanoparticles, with controlled size to be used as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging. The main formulation parameters influencing the preparation of gelatin nanoparticles with controlled size by single-step desolvation method, were studied and optimized, to produce small gelatin nanoparticles (97nm) and highly loaded (38% w/w) Fe3O4@citrate gelatin nanoparticles (150 nm) with high magnetic response (65emus/g). The viability assays of the magnetic gelatin nanoparticles, tested with mesenchymal stem cells, showed negligible toxicity and in vitro magnetic resonance imaging tests, performed in agar phantoms, revealed a good contrast for T2 weighting MRI, r2 = 265.5(mM−1 s−1), superior to commercial products, such as Resovist or Endorem.

Polymer-Lipid Pharmaceutical Nanocarriers: Innovations by New Formulations and Production Technologies

Some issues in pharmaceutical therapies such as instability, poor membrane permeability, and bioavailability of drugs can be solved by the design of suitable delivery systems based on the combination of two pillar classes of ingredients: polymers and lipids. At the same time, modern technologies are required to overcome production limitations (low productivity, high energy consumption, expensive setup, long process times) to pass at the industrial level. In this paper, a summary of applications of polymeric and lipid materials combined as nanostructures (hybrid nanocarriers) is reported. Then, recent techniques adopted in the production of hybrid nanoparticles are discussed, highlighting limitations still present that hold back the industrial implementation.

Hybrid lipid self-assembling nanoparticles for brain delivery of microRNA

Hybrid self-assembling nanoparticles (SANPs) have been previously designed as novel drug delivery system that overcomes stability issues following long-term storage and with an easy scale-up. This system has been successfully used to deliver anionic-charged agents, e.g. bisphosphonates, in different types of tumors, such glioblastoma (GBM). Here, SANPs were tested and optimized for the delivery of nucleic acids, in particular of a specific microRNA, e.g. miR603, used for its potential role in controlling the chemoresistance in different forms of cancer, e.g. (GBM). To this aim, SANPs with different lipids were prepared and characterized, in terms of size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, miRNA encapsulation, stability in BSA, serum and hemolytic activity. Then, SANPs were tested in vitro on two different cell lines of GBM. Finally, miRNA biodistribution was tested in vivo in an orthotopic model of GBM. The majority of the formulations showed good technological characteristics and were stable in BSA and serum with a low hemolytic activity. The intracellular uptake studies on GBM cell lines showed that SANPs allow to achieve a higher miRNA delivery compared to others transfection agents, e.g. lipofectamine. Finally, in vivo biodistribution studies in an orthotopic of GBM demonstrated that the optimized SANP formulations, were able to deliver miRNA in different organs, e.g. the brain.

Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms for Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent disease worldwide, and patients at late stages of CRC often suffer from a high mortality rate after surgery. Adjuvant chemotherapeutics (ACs) have been extensively developed to improve the survival rate of such patients, but conventionally formulated ACs inevitably distribute toxic chemotherapeutic drugs to healthy organs and thus often trigger severe side effects. CRC cells may also develop drug resistance following repeat dosing of conventional ACs, limiting their effectiveness. Given these limitations, researchers have sought to use targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs), specifically the nanotechnology-based DDSs, to deliver the ACs. As lipid-based nanoplatforms have shown the potential to improve the efficacy and safety of various cytotoxic drugs (such as paclitaxel and vincristine) in the clinical treatment of gastric cancer and leukemia, the preclinical progress of lipid-based nanoplatforms has attracted increasing interest. The lipid-based nanoplatforms might be the most promising DDSs to succeed in entering a clinical trial for CRC treatment. This review will briefly examine the history of preclinical research on lipid-based nanoplatforms, summarize the current progress, and discuss the challenges and prospects of using such approaches in the treatment of CRC.

Ultrashort Peptide Self-Assembly: Front-Runners to Transport Drug and Gene Cargos

The translational therapies to promote interaction between cell and signal come with stringent eligibility criteria. The chemically defined, hierarchically organized, and simpler yet blessed with robust intermolecular association, the peptides, are privileged to make the cut-off for sensing the cell-signal for biologics delivery and tissue engineering. The signature service and insoluble network formation of the peptide self-assemblies as hydrogels have drawn a spell of research activity among the scientists all around the globe in the past decades. The therapeutic peptide market players are anticipating promising growth opportunities due to the ample technological advancements in this field. The presence of the other organic moieties, enzyme substrates and well-established protecting groups like Fmoc and Boc etc., bring the best of both worlds. Since the large sequences of peptides severely limit the purification and their isolation, this article reviews the account of last 5 years' efforts on novel approaches for formulation and development of single molecule amino acids, ultra-short peptide self-assemblies (di- and tri- peptides only) and their derivatives as drug/gene carriers and tissue-engineering systems.

Therapeutic Interventions for Countering Leishmaniasis and Chagas's Disease: From Traditional Sources to Nanotechnological Systems

The incidence of neglected diseases in tropical countries, such as Leishmaniasis and Chagas's disease, is attributed to a set of biological and ecological factors associated with the socioeconomic context of developing countries and with a significant burden to health care systems. Both Leishmaniasis and Chagas's disease are caused by different protozoa and develop diverse symptoms, which depend on the specific species infecting man. Currently available drugs to treat these disorders have limited therapeutic outcomes, frequently due to microorganisms' drug resistance. In recent years, significant efforts have been made towards the development of innovative drug delivery systems aiming to improve bioavailability and pharmacokinetic profiles of classical drug therapy. This paper discusses the key facts of Leishmaniasis and Chagas's disease, the currently available pharmacological therapies and the new drug delivery systems for conventional drugs.

Core-Shell Nanoencapsulation of α-Tocopherol by Blending Sodium Oleate and Rebaudioside A: Preparation, Characterization, and Antioxidant Activity

Nanoencapsulation of α-tocopherol (α-TOC) by blending sodium oleate (NaOl) and rebaudioside A (RebA) was successfully prepared by self-assembly method under mild conditions. The optimized nanoemulsion showed the loading capacity of α-TOC was 30 wt% of sodium oleate. FTIR analysis suggested that hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions were the major forces in α-TOC-NaOl/RebA complexes that were spherical and possessed well-distinguishable core-shell structures. The freeze-dried α-TOC-NaOl/RebA complexes had great stability under ambient conditions. The release profile of α-TOC showed a first-order kinetics reaching around 67.9% after 90 h at 25 °C. Nanoencapsulation improved dispersibility and greatly increased the antioxidant activity of α-TOC. Therefore, the stable α-TOC-NaOl/RebA core-shell complexes prepared from “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) ingredients have great potential to supplement α-TOC in food and cosmetic products.

Thiolated Hyaluronic Acid as Versatile Mucoadhesive Polymer: From the Chemistry Behind to Product Developments-What Are the Capabilities?

Within the last decade, intensive research work has been conducted on thiolated hyaluronic acids (HA-SH). By attaching sulfhydryl ligands onto naturally occurring hyaluronic acid various types of HA-SH can be designed. Due the ability of disulfide bond formation within the polymer itself as well as with biological materials, certain properties such as mucoadhesive, gelling, enzyme inhibitory, permeation enhancing and release controlling properties are improved. Besides the application in the field of drug delivery, HA-SH has been investigated as auxiliary material for wound healing. Within this review, the characteristics of novel drug delivery systems based on HA-SH are summarized and the versatility of this polymer for further applications is described by introducing numerous relevant studies in this field.