Mindfulness and Emotional Outcomes: Identifying Subgroups of College Students using Latent Profile Analysis

Not all mindfulness is equal: certain facets of mindfulness have important implications for well-being and mental health across the lifespan

The connections between the five facets of mindfulness, well-being, and mental health across the lifespan have traditionally been investigated using variable-centered approaches. Less research has investigated these relationships from a person-centered, profile-based approach. In this work, we aimed to identify the profiles of mindfulness in a Canadian lifespan sample (14 to 90 years of age) and investigate how these profiles compared on age, well-being, and mental health. An age- and gender-balanced sample of 1,600 participants completed a questionnaire that measured the five facets of mindfulness; life satisfaction; existential well-being; and anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms. A latent profile analysis was conducted. Five profiles based on the five-facet model of mindfulness were identified: high mindfulness, moderate mindfulness, low mindfulness, nonjudgmentally aware, and judgmentally observing. The 3-step approach to profile comparisons was used to assess age, mental health, and well-being differences across the profiles. Those in the high mindfulness and nonjudgmentally aware profiles were generally older, while the judgmentally observing profile contained younger individuals. Those in the high mindfulness and nonjudgmentally aware profiles reported the greatest mental health and well-being. Conversely, those in the low mindfulness and judgmentally observing profiles had worse mental health than the other profiles. The moderate mindfulness profile was situated between these profile groups on age, mental health, and well-being outcomes. This pattern of results has implications for mindfulness-based intervention research and practice to better account for heterogeneity in mindfulness and better support well-being across the lifespan.

Dispositional mindfulness profiles in pregnant women: relationships with dyadic adjustment and symptoms of depression and anxiety

Introduction

Pregnancy is a time of major transition that can be stressful for women. Dispositional mindfulness may protect individuals when they face stress. Recent studies have adopted a person-centered approach to examine the role of mindfulness by identifying subtypes of individuals based on their scores in five mindfulness facets. Latent profile analysis was used to identify different mindfulness profiles in a sample of pregnant women, and we explored the relationships between these profiles, depression and anxiety symptoms, and whether dyadic adjustment mediated these relationships.

Method

A total of 535 women aged 18-45 years in their 26th week of pregnancy completed questionnaires regarding mindfulness, dyadic satisfaction and cohesion, and depression and anxiety symptoms.

Results

Three profiles were identified: (1) low mindfulness (53.8%), (2) moderate mindfulness (34.3%), and (3) non-judgmentally aware (11.9%). The most adaptive profile was the non-judgmentally aware profile. Compared to the low mindfulness profile, the non-judgmentally aware profile and the moderate mindfulness profile were related to fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety, and these relationships were partly mediated by dyadic satisfaction.

Discussion

These results suggest that analyzing each pregnant woman's mindfulness profile can improve the prevention of and interventions for anxiety and depression.

Age and sex-specific differences of mindfulness traits with measurement invariance controlled in Chinese adult population: A pilot study

Objectives

To examine the relationships of age and sex with mindfulness traits among Chinese adults with controlling for measurement invariance.

Methods

A total of 1777 participants completing the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire were included for analysis. Their age and sex information were also collected. Descriptive analysis, Pearson's Chi-Square test and analysis of variance were performed to test the age- and sex-specific differences, measurement invariance was examined by confirmatory factor analysis.

Results

Excellent data fit to the model indicated configural, metric, and scalar invariance across age and sex. Participants aged 60 or above scored significantly higher in dimensions of acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, nonreactivity to inner experience, and the total scores than younger individuals, who had higher scores in the observing domain. In addition, females scored higher in describing and observing than males, while the latter had higher score in nonreactivity to inner experience.

Conclusions

The Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Mindfulness showed acceptable measurement invariance across age and sex in Chinese adult population. The old and the young differs in the traits of awareness, observing, nonjudging of inner experience, nonreactivity to inner experience and the total mindfulness level, while males and females varied in describing, observing and nonreactivity to inner experience. Individual differences should be considered and well addressed in future studies on mindfulness.

Is Mindfulness Associated With Safer Cannabis Use? A Latent Profile Analysis of Dispositional Mindfulness Among College Students Who Use Cannabis

Objectives

Previous research cites mindfulness as a protective factor against risky substance use, but the specific association between dispositional mindfulness (DM) and cannabis use has been inconsistent. Despite known heterogeneity of DM facets across college students, much of the prior research in this area has relied on variable-centered approaches. Only a handful of prior studies within the cannabis literature have utilized person-centered approaches, and only one has specifically examined unique profiles of dispositional mindfulness in relation to patterns of use among college students.

Method

The present study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify subtypes of DM and their relationships with cannabis use behaviors (i.e., hazardous use and consequences of use) in a sample of 683 U.S. college students who endorsed past-month cannabis use and participated in an online survey of substance use behaviors, hypothesizing that a three-profile model would be replicated. We also examined whether age and prior experience with mindfulness predicted DM profile membership (hypothesizing that these variables would differentially predict membership) and explored mean differences in alcohol use across profiles.

Results

LPA results revealed three discrete profiles of DM: non-judgmentally aware, judgmentally observing, and moderate traits. Participants in the non-judgmentally aware profile were less likely to have prior mindfulness experience than the other profiles, but age did not predict profile membership. Judgmentally observing had more hazardous cannabis use and consequences than the other profiles, and no mean differences emerged on alcohol use.

Conclusions

These results build upon the only known study that investigated how DM relates to cannabis use. Further research is needed to elucidate this relationship, which can inform the application of mindfulness interventions for hazardous cannabis use in college students.

Pre-registration

This study was not pre-registered.

Social, Emotional and Behavioral Screening Profiles Among Students in a Large Urban School District

Social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) screening frequently employs a variable-based approach wherein individual scale scores indicate risk. However, a person-centered approach wherein risk is indicated by profiles, or constellations of scores across all scales, could help schools prioritize students based on the pervasiveness of SEB needs and match students to appropriate interventions. This study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify profiles within two diverse student samples ( n = 16,270 in year one; n = 4019 in year two) based on teacher ratings on the Behavior Intervention Monitoring Assessment System, Second Edition (BIMAS-2). Results suggested four profiles including one profile with elevated risk across all scales, one profile with low behavioral risk and above average social functioning, one profile with borderline risk across all scales, and one profile with typical scores across most scales. Implications for linking universal screening to intervention are discussed. Impact and Implications: Many school districts employ universal screening to prevent and address wide-ranging student needs. Grouping students based on shared sets of needs has the potential to efficiently identify and prioritize students with pervasive risk in order to match them to comprehensive services. Results from this study capture the first attempt to identify student need profiles using BIMAS-2 scores. Future research should refine this process to derive more usable and consistent student profiles allowing direct links to comprehensive student services.

Risk and resilience factors associated with college students' psychological distress and PTSD symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic

Objective: College students are experiencing pronounced mental health difficulties as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Little is known, however, about underlying risk and resilience factors contributing to students' psychological health during this time. The current study examined mindfulness, resilience, coping, emotion regulation, and daily hassles as possible predictors of COVID-19 concern, psychological distress, and PTSD symptoms in a sample of college students. Participants: One hundred and thirty-five undergraduate college students participated in this study during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: Participants completed a series of self-report questionnaires. Results: Risk and resilience factor hierarchical regression models were run separately to predict the three outcomes. Daily hassles, ethnicity, and first-generation college student status predicted greater COVID-19 concern; daily hassles and difficulties with emotion regulation predicted greater psychological distress; daily hassles, difficulties with emotion regulation, avoidant coping, and problem-focused coping positively predicted PTSD symptoms. Acting with awareness mindfulness and continuing-generation college student status predicted lower COVID-19 concern; acting with awareness mindfulness, nonjudging mindfulness, and resilience predicted lower psychological distress; acting with awareness mindfulness, nonjudging mindfulness, and resilience also predicted lower PTSD symptomatology. Conclusions: Identifying underlying factors associated with college students' mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic may facilitate the development and implementation of targeted preventative interventions aimed at promoting well-being in this uniquely vulnerable population.

Family Incivility and Cyberbullying Perpetration Among College Students: Negative Affect as a Mediator and Dispositional Mindfulness as a Moderator

Although family factors are associated with cyberbullying, few studies have investigated the relationship between family incivility and cyberbullying perpetration. The current study aimed to examine the associations between family incivility and cyberbullying perpetration among college students, and further investigate the underlying moderated mediation mechanism. Study 1 was a cross-sectional survey among 640 Chinese undergraduate students (M_age = 20.29 years, SD = 1.38). Demographics, family incivility, cyberbullying perpetration, and negative affect were assessed. The results supported the idea that negative affect plays a role in mediating the relationship between family incivility and cyberbullying perpetration. Study 2 used a two-wave longitudinal design, aiming to examine both the mediating role of negative affect and the moderating role of dispositional mindfulness (represented through five facets-observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging, and nonreacting-each of which were analyzed separately). The data were collected from 200 Chinese undergraduate and graduate students (M_age = 22.18, SD = 2.56). Negative affect was also found to play a mediation effect in this study. Furthermore, the results found that acting with awareness and nonjudging weakened the relationship between family incivility and negative affect, whereas observing exacerbated it. Moreover, nonjudging exacerbated the relationship between negative affect and cyberbullying perpetration. The present findings indicate that negative affect may play a role in explaining the association between family incivility and cyberbullying perpetration. Furthermore, acting with awareness and nonjudging could buffer the relationship between family incivility and cyberbullying perpetration via negative affect, which provides a new insight for the prevention of and intervention on cyberbullying perpetration.

Profiles of mindfulness in cancer patients and associations with psychological outcomes and coping strategies: A person-centered approach

OBJECTIVE

Previous research confirmed the benefits of mindfulness for cancer patients' psychological well-being, but few studies considered the value of possible distinct combinations of mindfulness skills. This study aimed to (1) identify distinct mindfulness profiles in cancer patients, (2) examine socio-demographic predictors of patients with distinct profiles, and (3) examine associations of mindfulness profiles with psychological outcomes and coping strategies.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 245 people with heterogeneous types of cancer. Latent profile analysis was applied to identify distinct profiles of mindfulness. The Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars method was used to examine how mindfulness profiles related to socio-demographic characteristics, psychological outcomes, and coping strategies.

RESULTS

Four mindfulness profiles were identified: "average mindfulness" (50%), "judgmentally observing" (20%), "high mindfulness" (15%), and "non-judgmentally aware" (15%). Patients with "high mindfulness" profile tended to have higher educational attainment, and reported better psychological outcomes (i.e., low on depression and negative affect and high on positive affect) as well as better coping strategies (i.e., high positive reappraisal and low rumination).

CONCLUSION

This study confirms the existence of distinct mindfulness profiles in cancer patients and suggest that patients high in mindfulness are the most adaptive.

Profiles of mindfulness and difficulties in emotion regulation and links to work-family-school conflict

Objective We explored latent profiles based on mindfulness and difficulties in emotion regulation scores, and investigated each profiles' relations to work-family-school conflict (WFSC). Participants: A total of 194 first year college students (64.4% women) participated in this study. Methods: Latent profile analysis was utilized. Results: Three profiles emerged, characterized as the "healthy" profile (57.5%), the "observant yet judgmental" profile (33.3%) and the "unhealthy without strategies" profile (9.2%). The "healthy" profile showed (a) significantly lower scores on all conflict domains compared to the "observant yet judgmental" profile, and (b) significantly lower scores on all behavior-based conflicts regardless of the domains, compared to the "unhealthy without strategies" profile. The difference between the "observant yet judgmental" profile and "unhealthy without strategies" profile appeared in family-school time. Results indicate that mindfulness and healthy emotion regulation capacity function as protective factors to WFSC. Conclusions: Our findings hold strength in explicating profiles that would otherwise have not been detected when exploring mindfulness and difficulties in emotion regulation independently.

Effects of college students' mindfulness on depression symptoms during the epidemic prevention and control period: The mediating effect of psychological resilience

Depression symptoms significantly impact college students' mental health, particularly during the "closed management" period during the spread of COVID-19. Exploring the mechanism that affects college students' depression symptoms can help alleviate the impact of closed management policies on individual mental health and improve their mental health level. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the normalization of epidemic prevention and control in China and the implementation of the dynamic zero-COVID policy. This study used the Five-Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form, Psychological Resilience Scale, and Beck Depression Scale to investigate the mindfulness, psychological resilience, and depression symptoms of 1,062 students under closed management conditions at Northwest Normal University. The mindfulness, psychological resilience, and depression status of students in closed management were investigated using an online questionnaire survey. Eight hundred and ten college students (M _age = 20.43, SD = 1.67, range = 17-30) were selected to test the model using the structural equation model and bootstrap method. The results showed that the gender differences in mindfulness and psychological resilience were not significant. Gender differences in depression symptoms were significant, and depression symptoms in men were significantly higher than in women. Grade differences in resilience, mindfulness, and depression levels were not significant. Thus, psychological resilience is negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Psychological resilience plays a mediating role between mindfulness and depressive symptoms. This study provides reference and inspiration for improving college students' mental health under epidemic prevention and control circumstances.

Does mindfulness reduce negative interpretation bias?

Negative interpretation bias, or the tendency to interpret ambiguous life events in a negative manner rather than positive or neutral, is a precursor to depression and anxiety. Evidence suggests that mindfulness reduces depression and anxiety, as well as a number of different negative cognitive biases. However, little is known about the association between mindfulness and negative interpretation bias specifically. Across two cross-sectional studies, we investigated this relation. In Study 1 (N = 135), greater trait mindfulness was correlated with less negative interpretation bias. In Study 2 (N = 173), we experimentally tested whether a brief mindfulness induction, compared to a mind-wandering task, decreased negative interpretation bias. Although there was not a direct effect of condition (mindfulness vs. mind-wandering) on negative interpretation bias, there was a significant indirect effect through negative mood. That is, participants in the mind-wandering condition reported greater negative mood following the induction compared to participants in the mindfulness condition, which was associated with more negative interpretation bias. The results suggest mindfulness is associated with less negative interpretation bias and may reduce negative interpretation bias by decreasing negative mood.

A balanced view of mindfulness at work

Mindfulness has grown from an obscure subject to an immensely popular topic that is associated with numerous performance, health, and well-being benefits in organizations. However, this growth in popularity has generated a number of criticisms of mindfulness and a rather piecemeal approach to organizational research and practice on the subject. To advance both investigation and application, the present paper applies The Balance Framework to serve as an integrative scaffolding for considering mindfulness in organizations, helping to address some of the criticisms leveled against it. The Balance Framework specifies five forms of balance: 1) balance as tempered view, 2) balance as mid-range, 3) balance as complementarity, 4) balance as contextual sensitivity, and 5) balance among different levels of consciousness. Each form is applied to mindfulness at work with a discussion of relevant conceptual issues in addition to implications for research and practice.

Plain Language Summary

In order to appreciate the value of mindfulness at work researchers and practitioners might want to consider both the benefits and potential drawbacks of mindfulness. This paper presents a discussion of both the advantages and possible disadvantages of mindfulness at work organized in terms of the five dimensions of an organizing structure called The Balance Framework.

Cognitive decline trajectories and influencing factors in China: A non-normal growth mixture model analysis

BACKGROUND

With the increase in the aging population worldwide, cognitive decline has become an important research topic. The purpose of this study is to examine the cognitive development trajectories and influencing factors of different latent classes of Chinese elderly people. This will provide us with effective guidance for prevention and intervention.

METHODS

Four waves of data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) were collected and included 2440 Chinese elderly individuals. The cognitive function of elderly individuals was measured using the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). A nonnormal Growth Mixture model (GMM) with five time-invariant covariates was used to identify the different trajectories of cognitive decline in elderly individuals.

RESULTS

Three latent decline trajectory groups were identified: stable cognitive group (SCG), high initial level - cognitive decline group (HIL-CDG), and high initial level - cognitive decline group (LIL-CDG). Elderly women were more likely to be assigned to a lower level subgroup than men. People who smoked and played cards or mahjong were more likely to be assigned to a cognitively stable group.

CONCLUSION

Education may help raise the upper limit of cognition. Smoking may impair cognitive upper limit. A small amount of alcohol intake and participation in cognitive and physical activities may help the elderly to delay cognitive decline in their later years.

Brief mindfulness-based training and mindfulness trait attenuate psychological stress in university students: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Psychological distress in University settings has grown and became a public health concern. In this context, contemplative practices such as mindfulness have been proposed as a strategy to help students on stress management.

METHODS

Forty university students (20 female), aged between 18 to 30 years (mean = 24.15; SD = 3.56), with no previous experience with meditation or yoga were recruited at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte and randomized to a mindfulness training (MT) or active control (AC) groups. We analyzed measures of anxiety, affect, stress, as well as state and trait mindfulness in order to evaluate the effects of trait mindfulness and a brief mindfulness intervention in forty healthy young students. Participants were classified as Low (n = 27, females = 13) or High (n = 13, females = 7) Trait Mindfulness by k-means clustering and compared between them using Wilcoxon sum rank test. Furthermore, the sample was randomly allocated to an AC (n = 20, females = 10) or a MT (n = 20, females = 10) group, and mixed analysis of variance was performed to analyze the effect of interventions. The mechanisms and role of trait mindfulness in the intervention was assessed by a moderated mediation analysis.

RESULTS

We found that High Trait individuals have lower anxiety trait, anxiety state and perceived stress levels. Only the MT group reduced their anxiety state and perceived stress after the intervention and increased their state mindfulness. Both groups reduced negative affect and cortisol, and no change was found in positive affect. Moderated mediation analysis showed that the training-induced change in state mindfulness mediated the increase in positive affect and the decrease in perceived stress and cortisol, regardless of trait mindfulness. For anxiety state the decrease only occurred in individuals with High Trait Mindfulness.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these results suggest that higher trait mindfulness is associated with low levels of psychological distress and that a brief mindfulness-based intervention seems to be useful to reduce distress measures in university students.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ReBEC, U1111-1194-8661. Registered 28 March 2017-Retrospectively registered, http://www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-7b8yh8.

Mindfulness, depression, and emotional eating: The moderating role of nonjudging of inner experience

Emotional eating is defined as the tendency to increase food consumption in order to modify negative emotional states. Theories on emotional eating attribute its cause to inadequate emotion regulation, specifically an inability to draw awareness to and accept distress. Mindfulness, or the ability to pay attention to and accept internal and external experiences, is thought to attenuate the association between internalizing distress and emotional eating. Nevertheless, there has been little research examining the moderating role of mindfulness in the relationship between psychological distress and emotional eating. The present study used a cross-sectional design to probe the effects of specific facets of mindfulness, as measured by the Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire, on the relationship between internalizing distress (i.e., depression and anxiety) and emotional eating in a diverse community sample (N = 248). Results showed that depression significantly interacted with nonjudging of inner experience to predict emotional eating. Those who were high in nonjudging endorsed less emotional eating than those who were average or low in nonjudging. This was significant only at low levels of depression. These findings delineate the moderating role of specific aspects of trait mindfulness in the association between depression and emotional eating and may inform more targeted intervention and prevention efforts.

The heterogeneity of social anxiety symptoms among Chinese adolescents: Results of latent profile analysis

BACKGROUND

The main objective of the current study was to investigate the symptoms of social anxiety in Chinese adolescents by conducting latent profile analysis (LPA), a person-centered statistical approach, with items from the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A).

METHOD

In total, a sample of 2,755 adolescents aged 11‒19 years were recruited from six urban public schools in the Beijing District and Sichuan Province, China. Latent profile analysis, regression mixture modelling, and multinomial logistical regression were adopted to investigate the latent profiles and profiles validity.

RESULTS

A four-profile model was suggested as the optimum: low group with diffuse social anxiety, moderate group with difficulties in new situations, moderate group with cognitive disturbance, and high group with diffuse social anxiety. With regression mixture modelling, results showed a greater possibility for older adolescents and girls fall into the high group with diffuse social anxiety. Finally, to examine the validity and interpretability of the social anxiety profiles, two cognitive factors-post-event rumination and self-focused attention-were adopted for their potential to significantly predict the moderate and high group social anxiety profiles.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study, which was the first effort to investigate the features of social anxiety among Chinese adolescents with LPA, supports an innovative model of social anxiety symptoms in a large, non-Western sample. Limitations and clinical implications are included.

Daily change patterns in mindfulness and psychological health: A pilot intervention

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the differences in first-year college students' daily change trajectories in subjective happiness, depression, anxiety, stress, and state mindfulness.

METHOD

A 5-day, online mindfulness-based intervention (MI) condition and stress management (SM) condition were employed in 247 first-year college students.

RESULTS

Students in both the MI and SM conditions displayed similar significant linear declines in anxiety and stress, but there were significant differences between the two conditions, including: (1) the MI condition showing a significant linear increase in subjective happiness compared with no change in the SM condition and (2) the SM condition showed a significant linear decrease in depression compared to no significant change in the MI condition.

CONCLUSION

Brief online interventions-whether MI or SM-can promote better mental health and reduce psychological distress. The results also lend support for MI's differential influence on first-year college students' happiness and SM's differential influence on their depression.

Associations of Five Facets of Mindfulness With Self-Regulation in College Students

Mindfulness has been associated with positive mental health functioning across a range of constructs, including self-regulation. Most of this research, however, has investigated mindfulness as a unidimensional domain. Few studies have examined the relationships between specific facets of mindfulness and particular dimensions of self-regulation, including delay of gratification and emotion regulation, despite relevance for mindfulness-based interventions. Two hundred and seventy-eight undergraduate college student participants completed a series of questionnaires examining dispositional mindfulness, difficulties with emotion regulation, and delay of gratification skills. Linear regressions investigated the associations between five facets of mindfulness and each of the two components of self-regulation. Findings revealed that describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging, and nonreacting mindfulness facets were negatively associated with difficulties with emotion regulation, and that observing, acting with awareness, and nonjudging mindfulness facets were positively associated with delay of gratification skills, after accounting for the effects of the other mindfulness subscales. These preliminary findings may have important clinical relevance, as greater self-regulation has critical implications for social, emotional, and academic functioning.

Mindfulness, self-reported health, and cortisol: A latent profile analysis

This study utilized a latent profile analysis approach to examine the relationship between mindfulness profiles and self-reported mental and physical health, as well as salivary cortisol levels in a sample of 85 undergraduate students. Consistent with theory, the Judgmentally Observing (high monitoring, low acceptance) reported poorer mental health and exhibited flatter diurnal cortisol slopes than the Unobservant Accepting (low monitoring, high acceptance) and Average Mindfulness profiles. No differences in self-reported physical health, cortisol response to awakening, or diurnal mean cortisol were observed among the profiles. Future directions are discussed.

How mindfulness shapes the situational use of emotion regulation strategies in daily life

Mindfulness is associated with a wide range of beneficial outcomes such as well-being. However, less is known about the mechanisms underlying these benefits. Some researchers suggest that the benefits could be driven by emotion regulation, either by improving the effectiveness of emotion regulation or by lessening the need for effortful emotion regulation. By using two longitudinal Ambulatory Assessment data sets (N_Study1  = 125, N_Study2  = 175), based on a six-week randomised controlled trial and a one-week study, we tested these competing notions in daily life and found support for the latter: Mindfulness, and especially its non-judgmental acceptance facet, was significantly associated with less use of emotion regulation strategies. However, mindfulness was not significantly associated with more effective emotion regulation strategy implementation. Moreover, the mindfulness training focusing on present-moment attention and awareness did not significantly influence emotion regulation. These findings demonstrate the importance of the non-judgmental acceptance component for emotion regulation and affective well-being.

Psychometric properties and validation of the Swedish Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in a clinical and non-clinical sample among meditators and non-meditators

Over a period of 15 years several attempts to conceptualize mindfulness have been presented and revised, but there is still no clear or agreed‐upon definition. The use of mindfulness‐based interventions has increased in clinical and research settings the last couple of years, including in Sweden. As a clinician it is crucial to know if a treatment works through the theoretically postulated mechanisms of change. Mindfulness is a concept that is difficult to measure. The overall aim of the current project was to examine the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ_SWE) using three different studies. To test the construct validity of the FFMQ_SWE a hierarchal confirmatory factor analysis was performed in a meditating non‐clinical sample, to examine if all the five facets would load on an overall mindfulness construct. Psychometric properties of the instrument were examined in a non‐clinical and a clinical sample, and discriminative relationships with other variables were analysed. The convergent validity was examined by analysing the correlations between FFMQ_SWE and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Sense of Coherence and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Test‐retest reliability was tested by distributing FFMQ_SWE at two occasions. The hierarchal confirmatory factor analysis showed good fit in a population of meditators. The FFMQ_SWE showed good convergent validity and test‐retest reliability in both clinical and non‐clinical populations. In sum, the Swedish version of the FFMQ showed good psychometric properties and can be a useful instrument as an evaluation of treatment effects in both health care settings and research settings.

Dispositional Mindfulness Profiles in Adolescents and their Associations with Psychological Functioning and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Hormones

Adolescence is often accompanied by an increase in stress and depression. Although there is considerable consensus about the benefits of mindfulness-based interventions to reduce these problems, the results for the role of dispositional mindfulness facets have been mixed. Recent studies have contributed to clarifying this role by identifying subtypes of individuals according to their profiles in mindfulness facets and examining the functioning of these profiles in relation to several self-reported indicators of wellbeing and health. The current study extends previous research by exploring mindfulness profiles in adolescents and by providing several sources of indicators (self-reports, parent-reports, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hormones) to examine the adaptive role of these profiles. A sample of 571 adolescents (50.61% girls; 12-17 years old) completed measures of mindfulness, depression, maladaptive schemas, and temperament (neuroticism, extraversion, and effortful control), and provided salivary samples for cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. In addition, 331 adolescents' parents completed measures of their children' temperaments. The results of latent profile analyses supported a three-profile solution: (1) moderate mindfulness (65.5%), (2) judgmental observing (24.2%), and (3) nonjudgmentally aware (10.3%). The judgmental observing profile was associated with a worse adjustment, indicated by higher depressive symptoms, maladaptive schemas, perceived stress, stress-associated hormones, and neuroticism, as well as lower scores on extroversion and effortful control. This profile was more frequent among the oldest adolescents. In contrast, the nonjudgmentally aware group presented a better adjustment and was more frequent among the youngest adolescents. These findings have implications for preventive interventions. Analyzing the specific profile of each adolescent can help improve individual intervention, taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of each adolescent.

A Psychometric Review and Conceptual Replication Study of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire Latent Structure

The Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) is a popular tool in mindfulness research. However, its psychometric qualities and its replicability have caused controversy. This study carried out a psychometric review and a conceptual replication of the FFMQ latent structure. The review showed that previous validation studies of the FFMQ used nonoptimal methods. In addition, this conceptual replication study tested the structure of the FFMQ using frequentist and Bayesian techniques. The original structure did not provide a good fit with both techniques, while the proposed alternative provided mixed results. We also found systematic fit improvements in both techniques when the Observe facet was excluded and method factors were included. With these findings, we conclude that the conceptual replication of the FFMQ's structure failed. Alternatively, we propose a new provisional FFMQ model with a set of recommendations regarding its application. Future research proposals on improving techniques and models toward mindfulness assessment are also presented and discussed.

Neural mechanisms of affective instability and cognitive control in substance use

OBJECTIVE

We explored the impact of affect on cognitive control as this relates to individual differences in affective instability and substance use. Toward this end, we examined how different dimensions of affective instability interact to predict substance misuse and the effect of this on two event-related potential components, the reward positivity and the late positive potential, which are said to reflect the neural mechanisms of reward and emotion processing, respectively.

METHODS

We recorded the ongoing electroencephalogram from undergraduate students as they navigated two T-maze tasks in search of rewards. One of the tasks included neutral, pleasant, and unpleasant pictures from the International Affective Picture System. Participants also completed several questionnaires pertaining to substance use and personality.

RESULTS

A principal components analysis revealed a factor related to affective instability, which we named reactivity. This factor significantly predicted increased substance use. Individuals reporting higher levels of affective reactivity also displayed a larger reward positivity following stimuli with emotional content.

CONCLUSION

The current study uncovered a group of high-risk substance users who were characterized by greater levels of affective reactivity and context-specific increased sensitivity to rewards.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results help to elucidate the complex factors underlying substance use and may facilitate the creation of individually-tailored treatment programs for those struggling with substance use disorders.

Evaluating the Indirect Effects of Trait Mindfulness Facets on State Tripartite Components Through State Rumination and State Experiential Avoidance

The present study investigated whether specific trait mindfulness facets indirectly influenced state negative affect (NA), positive affect (PA), and physiological hyperarousal (PH) through state rumination and state experiential avoidance. Participants (n = 360, 68% female) rated trait mindfulness facets, then completed an interview task about life experiences intended to elicit state NA, PA, and PH. After the interview task, participants completed measures of state NA, PA, and PH, and state measures of rumination and experiential avoidance. Indirect effect results indicated that the relationships between Nonjudge, Nonreact, and Describe, and each of the state tripartite components indirectly flowed through state rumination. Further, there was a significant indirect effect of Nonjudge and Actaware on each of the three state tripartite components through experiential avoidance. Overall, strengthening the mindfulness skills of Nonjudge, Nonreact, Describe, and Actaware may have positive downstream effects via reducing reliance on maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as rumination or experiential avoidance.

Mindfulness and negative affectivity in real time: a within-person process model

To extend our understanding of the proximal etiology of personality pathology, this study examined the dynamic, in-the-moment relations between mindfulness and negative affectivity (NA; emotional lability, anxiousness, separation insecurity) as defined by the alternative model for personality disorders. We tested predictions based upon the Monitor and Acceptance Theory that when people monitored their attention judgmentally, their state NA would be higher than usual; by contrast, when they monitored their attention nonjudgmentally, their state NA would be lower than usual. Sixty-five undergraduates participated in an experience sampling study wherein they completed five reports per day for eight days about their states of mindfulness and NA. Multi-level models revealed an interaction wherein participants exhibited more state NA when they monitored their attention judgmentally than when they monitored their attention nonjudgmentally. Analyses of simple slopes revealed that participants exhibited more state NA than usual when they monitored their attention judgmentally. These findings emerged for only one of two attention monitoring processes, however: monitoring relations between thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, but not monitoring sensory stimuli. Analyses including non-reactivity instead of nonjudgment replicated these findings. Implications for theory, research, and treatment are discussed.

The Role of Attentional Control in the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Anxiety

Mindfulness has been robustly associated with psychological health, predicting greater well-being, and lower levels of anxiety, depression, and stress across samples. Attentional control is the ability to voluntarily shift, focus, and train one's attention and has also been linked with better psychological functioning. Less well-understood, however, are which domains of mindfulness may be associated with particular aspects of mental health, including anxiety, and whether attentional control may help to explain the relationship between specific facets of mindfulness and anxiety. This study examined self-reported shifting and focusing attentional control as mediators of the relationships between five domains of dispositional mindfulness (i.e., observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging, and nonreacting) and symptoms of anxiety. Two hundred and eighty-six college students completed self-report questionnaires measuring dispositional mindfulness, attentional control, and symptoms of anxiety. Using mediation analyses, findings revealed an indirect effect of two facets of mindfulness on anxiety through focusing attentional control after controlling for shifting attentional control. These findings suggest that specific mindfulness skills are related to better attentional control skills, and that focusing attentional control may then protect against anxiety symptoms in college students. These results have critical implications for college students, who are experiencing anxiety and stress at increasing levels.

How mindfulness training promotes positive emotions: Dismantling acceptance skills training in two randomized controlled trials

Mindfulness meditation interventions-which train skills in monitoring present-moment experiences with a lens of acceptance-have shown promise for increasing positive emotions. Using a theory-based approach, we hypothesized that learning acceptance skills in mindfulness interventions helps people notice more positive experiences in daily life, and tested whether removing acceptance training from mindfulness interventions would eliminate intervention-related boosts in positive affect. In 2 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of stressed community adults, mindfulness skills were dismantled into 2 structurally equivalent interventions: (a) training in both monitoring and acceptance (Monitor + Accept) and (b) training in monitoring only (Monitor Only) without acceptance training. Study 1 tested 8-week group-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with a no treatment control group. Study 2 tested 2-week smartphone-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with an active control training. In both studies, end-of-day and momentary positive affect and negative affect were measured in daily life for 3 days pre- and post-intervention using ambulatory assessments. As predicted, across 2 RCTs, Monitor + Accept training increased positive affect compared with both Monitor Only and control groups. In Study 1, this effect was observed in end-of-day positive affect. In Study 2, this effect was found in both end-of-day and momentary positive affect outcomes. In contrast, all active interventions in Studies 1 and 2 decreased negative affect. These studies provide the first experimental evidence that developing an orientation of acceptance toward present-moment experiences is a central mechanism of mindfulness interventions for boosting positive emotions in daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Acceptance lowers stress reactivity: Dismantling mindfulness training in a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

Mindfulness interventions, which train practitioners to monitor their present-moment experience with a lens of acceptance, are known to buffer stress reactivity. Little is known about the active mechanisms driving these effects. We theorize that acceptance is a critical emotion regulation mechanism underlying mindfulness stress reduction effects.

METHOD

In this three-arm parallel trial, mindfulness components were dismantled into three structurally equivalent 15-lesson smartphone-based interventions: (1) training in both monitoring and acceptance (Monitor+Accept), (2) training in monitoring only (Monitor Only), or (3) active control training (Coping control). 153 stressed adults (mean age=32years; 67% female; 53% white, 21.5% black, 21.5% Asian, 4% other race) were randomly assigned to complete one of three interventions. After the intervention, cortisol, blood pressure, and subjective stress reactivity were assessed using a modified Trier Social Stress Test.

RESULTS

As predicted, Monitor+Accept training reduced cortisol and systolic blood pressure reactivity compared to Monitor Only and control trainings. Participants in all three conditions reported moderate levels of subjective stress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the first experimental evidence that brief smartphone mindfulness training can impact stress biology, and that acceptance training drives these effects. We discuss implications for basic and applied research in contemplative science, emotion regulation, stress and coping, health, and clinical interventions.

In the process of drinking to cope among college students: An examination of specific vs. global coping motives for depression and anxiety symptoms

The present study sought to address an issue in the drinking to cope (DTC) motives literature, namely the inconsistent application of treating DTC motives as a single construct and splitting it into DTC-depression and DTC-anxiety motives. Specifically, we aimed to determine if the effects of anxiety and depression on alcohol-related problems are best explained via their associations with DTC with specific affects or via their associations with a more global measure of DTC by testing four distinct models: the effects of anxiety/depression on alcohol-related problems mediated by DTC-anxiety only (Model 1), these effects mediated by DTC-depression only (Model 2), these effects mediated by a combined, global DTC factor (Model 3), and these effects mediated by both DTC-anxiety and DTC-depression (Model 4). Using path analysis/structural equation modeling across two independent samples, we found that there was a significant total indirect effect of both anxiety and depressive symptoms on alcohol-related problems in every model. However, there was a slightly larger indirect effect in all models using the global DTC motives factor compared to even the model that included the two distinct DTC motives. Our results provide some preliminary evidence that at least at the between-subjects level, a global DTC motives factor may have more predictive validity than separate DTC motives. Additional research is needed to examine how to best operationalize DTC motives at different levels of analysis (e.g., within-subjects vs. between subjects) and in different populations (e.g., college students vs. individuals with alcohol use disorder).

Mindfulness and Psychological Health Outcomes: A Latent Profile Analysis among Military Personnel and College Students

Previous research on trait mindfulness facets using person-centered analyses (e.g., latent profile analysis [LPA]) has identified four distinct mindfulness profiles among college students: a high mindfulness group (high on all facets of the Five-Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire [FFMQ]), a judgmentally observing group (highest on observing, but low on non-judging of inner experience and acting with awareness), a non-judgmentally aware group (high on non-judging of inner experience and acting with awareness, but very low on observing), and a low mindfulness group (low on all facets of the FFMQ). In the present study, we used LPA to identify distinct mindfulness profiles in a community based sample of U.S. military personnel (majority veterans; n = 407) and non-military college students (n = 310) and compare these profiles on symptoms of psychological health outcomes (e.g., suicidality, PTSD, anxiety, rumination) and percentage of participants exceeding clinically significant cut-offs for depressive symptoms, substance use, and alcohol use. In the subsample of college students, we replicated previous research and found four distinct mindfulness profiles; however, in the military subsample we found three distinct mindfulness profiles (a combined low mindfulness/judgmentally observing class). In both subsamples, we found that the most adaptive profile was the "high mindfulness" profile (i.e., demonstrated the lowest scores on all psychological symptoms and the lowest probability of exceeding clinical cut-offs). Based on these findings, we purport that the comprehensive examination of an individual's mindfulness profile could help clinicians tailor interventions/treatments that capitalize on individual's specific strengths and work to address their specific deficits.

Dispositional Mindfulness and Psychological Health: a Systematic Review

Interest in the influence of dispositional mindfulness (DM) on psychological health has been gathering pace over recent years. Despite this, a systematic review of this topic has not been conducted. A systematic review can benefit the field by identifying the terminology and measures used by researchers and by highlighting methodological weaknesses and empirical gaps. We systematically reviewed non-interventional, quantitative papers on DM and psychological health in non-clinical samples published in English up to June 2016, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A literature search was conducted using PsycINFO, PubMED, Medline and Embase, and 93 papers met the inclusion criteria. Within these, three main themes emerged, depicting the relationship between DM and psychological health: (1) DM appears to be inversely related to psychopathological symptoms such as depressive symptoms, (2) DM is positively linked to adaptive cognitive processes such as less rumination and pain catastrophizing and (3) DM appears to be associated with better emotional processing and regulation. These themes informed the creation of a taxonomy. We conclude that research has consistently shown a positive relationship between DM and psychological health. Suggestions for future research and conceptual and methodological limitations within the field are discussed.

Latent Profile Analysis of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in a Sample With a History of Recurrent Depression

Extending previous research, we applied latent profile analysis in a sample of adults with a history of recurrent depression to identify subgroups with distinct response profiles on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and understand how these relate to psychological functioning. The sample was randomly divided into two subsamples to first examine the optimal number of latent profiles (test sample; n = 343) and then validate the identified solution (validation sample; n = 340). In both test and validation samples, a four-profile solution was revealed where two profiles mapped broadly onto those previously identified in nonclinical samples: “high mindfulness” and “nonjudgmentally aware.” Two additional subgroups, “moderate mindfulness” and “very low mindfulness,” were observed. “High mindfulness” was associated with the most adaptive psychological functioning and “very low mindfulness” with the least adaptive. In most people with recurrent depression, mindfulness skills are expressed evenly across different domains. However, in a small minority a meaningful and replicable uneven profile indicating nonjudgmental awareness is observable. Current findings require replication and future research should examine the extent to which profiles change from periods of wellness to illness in people with recurrent depression and how profiles are influenced by exposure to mindfulness-based intervention.

Savouring and Self-compassion as Protective Factors for Depression

Within positive psychology, researchers and clinicians vocalize the need to expand upon how the treatment for major depressive disorder is conceptualized and implemented. The impetus of the current study was to examine preliminary criteria for identifying savouring and self-compassion as protective factors for depression. Undergraduate students (N = 133) completed a series of surveys at two points in time, 5 weeks apart. Results revealed that savouring and self-compassion were inversely related to depression scores cross-sectionally and prospectively. However, savouring was the only positive psychological variable to predict changes in depression scores across time. Cross-sectionally, savouring was also found to moderate the relation between negative life events and depression, such that the strength of the relation between negative life events and depression decreased when higher savouring was present. However, this same effect was not significant prospectively. There was no evidence, cross-sectionally or prospectively, that self-compassion moderated the relation between negative life events and depression. Taken together, results provide preliminary support for savouring as a protective factor for depressive symptoms. Mental health professionals should consider teaching savouring strategies to help at-risk clients stimulate and sustain positive affect as a means of preventing and reducing depressive symptoms. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Mechanisms of mindfulness training: Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT)

Despite evidence linking trait mindfulness and mindfulness training with a broad range of effects, still little is known about its underlying active mechanisms. Mindfulness is commonly defined as (1) the ongoing monitoring of present-moment experience (2) with an orientation of acceptance. Building on conceptual, clinical, and empirical work, we describe a testable theoretical account to help explain mindfulness effects on cognition, affect, stress, and health outcomes. Specifically, Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT) posits that (1), by enhancing awareness of one's experiences, the skill of attention monitoring explains how mindfulness improves cognitive functioning outcomes, yet this same skill can increase affective reactivity. Second (2), by modifying one's relation to monitored experience, acceptance is necessary for reducing affective reactivity, such that attention monitoring and acceptance skills together explain how mindfulness improves negative affectivity, stress, and stress-related health outcomes. We discuss how MAT contributes to mindfulness science, suggest plausible alternatives to the account, and offer specific predictions for future research.