Simultaneous determination of resibufogenin and its eight metabolites in rat plasma by LC-MS/MS for metabolic profiles and pharmacokinetic study

Resibufogenin protects against atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice through blocking NLRP3 inflammasome assembly

INTRODUCTION

Atherosclerosis (AS), a major cause of cardiovascular diseases, is characterized by lipid accumulation and chronic inflammation within arterial walls. Traditional treatments, such as statins, are often ineffective for many patients, highlighting the need for novel therapeutic strategies.

OBJECTIVE

This study explores the potential of Resibufogenin (RBG) as an NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor for treating AS in ApoE-/- mice.

METHODS

We performed experiments encompassing cellular studies, animal model assessments, molecular simulations, and binding assays to assess RBG's impact on the NLRP3 inflammasome, inflammatory cytokine release, and foam cell formation.

RESULTS

RBG treatment alleviated AS in ApoE-/- mice, evidenced by reduced body weight, smaller atherosclerotic plaques, and improved serum lipid profiles. Transcriptomics and molecular biology demonstrated that RBG suppressed the expression of key inflammatory markers such as NLRP3. RBG also reduced macrophage infiltration and promoted polarization toward the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. Molecular docking, SPR, Pull-down studies identified a non-covalent interaction between RBG and the CYS-279 residue of NLRP3, confirming its role as a potent NLRP3 inhibitor.

CONCLUSION

RBG effectively inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation, reduces pro-inflammatory cytokine release, and decreases formation of foamy macrophages, thereby slowing the progression of AS. Although these findings highlight RBG as a promising therapeutic approach for cardiovascular diseases, further research is necessary to assess its safety and effectiveness in humans and to investigate possible synergistic effects with other treatments.

Identification of Chemical Constituents and Rat Metabolites of Jianpihuazhuotiaozhi Granule by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled With Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

Jianpihuazhuotiaozhi granules (JPHZTZ) are traditional Chinese medicine formula. An analytical method using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was established to characterize the chemical constituents of JPHZTZ and determine its metabolic profile in rat urine and plasma after oral administration. A total of 220 compounds were identified in JPHZTZ extract, including 61 flavonoids, 16 alkaloids, 53 organic acids, 31 terpenoids, and 59 other compounds. Among these compounds, 11 were tentatively identified by comparing the retention times and mass spectral data with the corresponding reference standards and the literature; the other 209 components were tentatively identified based on their mass spectra alone. After the oral administration of JPHZTZ extract to rats, 13 prototypes and 54 metabolites were identified or tentatively characterized based on their retention time and mass spectra. The primary in vivo metabolic reactions that occurred after the administration of JPHZTZ extract included glucuronidation, sulfation, hydroxylation, and methylation. The 13 prototypes and 54 metabolites were identified in rat urine and plasma and were confirmed to be the potential active ingredients of JPHZTZ. Our findings provide a starting point for the further elucidation of the mechanism of action of JPHZTZ.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Methanol Extract of Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Through Nrf2/HO-1-Mediated Inhibition of NF-κB Signaling in LPS-Stimulated Mouse Microglial Cells

Botanical extracts are recognized in traditional medicine for their therapeutic potential and safety standards. Botanical extracts are viable and sustainable alternatives to synthetic drugs, being essential in drug discovery for various diseases. Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby is a medical plant traditionally used to treat inflammation. However, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and the molecular pathways activated in microglial cells require further investigation. Therefore, this study examines the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby methanol extracts (SMEs) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse microglial cells. SMEs significantly inhibit LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokine production, which are mediated through the dephosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) translocation into the nucleus. Additionally, SME treatment upregulated the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase (HO)-1, reducing oxidative stress, indicated by a decrease in reactive oxygen species and restoration of the total glutathione content in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. The inhibitory effects of SMEs on inflammatory mediator production and NF-κB nuclear translocation were significantly reversed by Sn-protoporphyrin, a specific HO-1 inhibitor. These findings demonstrate that SME protects microglial cells by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and inhibiting NF-κB translocation.

Integrated chemical characterization, metabolite profiling, and pharmacokinetics analysis of Zhijun Tangshen Decoction by UPLC-Q/TOF-MS

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide and a major public issue affecting the health of people. Therefore, it is essential to explore effective drugs for the treatment of DN. In this study, the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, Zhijun Tangshen Decoction (ZJTSD), a prescription modified from the classical formula Didang Decoction, has been used in the clinical treatment of DN. However, the chemical basis underlying the therapeutic effects of ZJTSD in treating DN remains unknown. In this study, compounds of ZJTSD and serum after oral administration in rats were identified and analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS). Meanwhile, a semi-quantitative approach was used to analyze the dynamic changes in the compounds of ZJTSD in vivo. UPLC-Q/TOF-MS analysis identified 190 compounds from ZJTSD, including flavonoids, anthraquinones, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, and other categories. A total of 156 xenobiotics and metabolites, i.e., 51 prototype compounds and 105 metabolites, were identified from the compounds absorbed into the blood of rats treated with ZJTSD. The results further showed that 23 substances with high relative content, long retention time, and favorable pharmacokinetic characteristics in vivo deserved further investigations and validations of bioactivities. In conclusion, this study revealed the chemical basis underlying the complexity of ZJTSD and investigated the metabolite profiling and pharmacokinetics of ZJTSD-related xenobiotics in rats, thus providing a foundation for further investigation into the pharmacodynamic substance basis and metabolic regulations of ZJTSD.

Quantification of nine bufadienolides of Shexiang Tongxin Dropping Pills in rat plasma and tissues using UPLC-MS/MS and its application to healthy and ischemia-reperfusion rats pharmacokinetic studies

Shexiang Tongxin Dropping Pill (STDP) is a well-known compound preparation used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating cardiovascular diseases. Bufadienolides are the major active compounds of toad venom and are the key to the seven medicinal herbs that comprise STDP. In this study, a reliable and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the quantitative determination of nine bufadienolides (bufalin, gamabufotalin, resibufogenin, marinobufagin, arenobufagin, desacetylcinobufagin, telocinobufagin, hellebrigenin, and hellebrigenol) in rat plasma and tissues (heart and liver). The chromatography column used was a Waters ACQUITY UPLC HSS-T3 column with gradient elution using mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile-water (0.1% formic acid added) at a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min. This method passed the methodological validation of plasma and tissues and was successfully applied to pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution studies after oral administration of STDP in healthy and ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) rats. This indicated that most bufadienolides were well absorbed and quickly distributed in the heart and liver. The area-under-the-curve (AUC)(0-t) of most analytes increased in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, most of the tested components showed lower plasma and higher tissue concentrations in I/R rats than in healthy rats. The above results on the oral pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution may be helpful for the clinical application of STDP.

Chemical components characterization and in vivo metabolites profiling of Lingbao Huxin Dan by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Lingbao Huxin Dan (LBHX) is an effective prescription for treating various cardiovascular diseases. However, its systematic chemical composition analysis and important marker components remain unclear, which hinders the development of standards or guidelines for quality evaluation. Herein, a high-resolution and efficient method was established to comprehensively investigate the chemical ingredients and metabolites of LBHX by using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. AutoDock Vina was applied to conduct visual screening for identifying potential active compounds targeting two important sick sinus syndrome-associated proteins. As a result, 53 volatile compounds, as well as 191 non-volatile chemical components, including bufadienolides, diterpenoids, bile acids, phenolic acids, and triterpenoid saponins, were unambiguously characterized or tentatively identified. Fifty prototypes and 62 metabolites were identified in the plasma of rats, whilst metabolism reactions included phase I reactions (hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydroxylation) and phase II reactions (glucuronidation and methylation). Eleven compounds with good binding affinity have been observed by docking with key proteins. It is the first systematic study on the pharmacodynamic material basis of LBHX and the result consolidates the foundation for further study regarding the mechanism in treating cardiovascular diseases.

Identification of resibufogenin, a component of toad venom, as a novel senolytic compound in vitro and for potential skin rejuvenation in male mice

Senescent cells that accumulate with age have been shown to contribute to age-related diseases and organ dysfunction and have attracted attention as a target for anti-aging therapy. In particular, the use of senescent cell-depleting agents, or senolytics, has been shown to improve the aging phenotype in animal models. Since senescence has been implicated in the skin, particularly in fibroblasts, this study used aged human skin fibroblasts to investigate the effects of resibufogenin. A component of the traditional Chinese medicine toad venom, resibufogenin was investigated for senolytic and/or senomorphic activity. We found that the compound selectively caused senescent cell death without affecting proliferating cells, with a marked effect on the suppression of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. We also found that resibufogenin causes senescent cell death by inducing a caspase-3-mediated apoptotic program. Administration of resibufogenin to aging mice resulted in an increase in dermal collagen density and subcutaneous fat, improving the phenotype of aging skin. In other words, resibufogenin ameliorates skin aging through selective induction of senescent cell apoptosis without affecting non-aged cells. This traditional compound may have potential therapeutic benefits in skin aging characterized by senescent cell accumulation.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel carbazole derivatives as potent DNMT1 inhibitors with reasonable PK properties

The DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) were found in mammals to maintain DNA methylation. Among them, DNMT1 was the first identified, and it is an attractive target for tumour chemotherapy. DC_05 and DC_517 have been reported in our previous work, which is non-nucleoside DNMT1 inhibitor with low micromolar IC₅₀ values and significant selectivity towards other S-adenosyl-_L-methionine (SAM)-dependent protein methyltransferases. In this study, through a process of similarity-based analog searching, a series of DNMT1 inhibitors were designed, synthesized, and evaluated as anticancer agents. SAR studies were conducted based on enzymatic assays. And most of the compounds showed strong inhibitory activity on human DNMT1, especially WK-23 displayed a good inhibitory effect on human DNMT1 with an IC₅₀ value of 5.0 µM. Importantly, the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of WK-23 was obtained with quite satisfying oral bioavailability and elimination half-life. Taken together, WK-23 is worth developing as DNMT1-selective therapy for the treatment of malignant tumour.

Resibufogenin inhibits the malignant characteristics of multiple myeloma cells by blocking the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Resibufogenin (RBG) is an active ingredient of toad venom that also has antitumor potential. The present study aimed to investigate the role of RBG in multiple myeloma (MM) and the underlying action mechanism involving the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. A human MM cell line, RPMI8226, was treated with RBG and/or insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1; an activator of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway). Cell viability and apoptosis were detected using Cell Counting Kit-8 and flow cytometry, respectively. Cell migration and invasion were detected using a Transwell assay. In addition, the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-associated proteins (E-cadherin, N-cadherin and Vimentin) and the PI3K/AKT pathway-associated proteins [AKT, phosphorylated (p)-AKT, PI3K and p-PI3K] were measured using western blotting. RBG inhibited the viability, migration and invasion, and promoted the apoptosis of RPMI8226 cells in a dose-dependent manner. RBG at concentrations of 4 and 8 µM upregulated E-cadherin, and downregulated N-cadherin and Vimentin in RPMI8226 cells. RBG also decreased the protein expression of p-AKT and p-PI3K in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the intervention of IGF-1 weakened the inhibitory effects of RBG on the malignant characteristics of MM cells. RBG-induced inhibition of EMT and the PI3K/AKT pathway were also weakened by IGF-1 treatment. In conclusion, RBG inhibited viability, migration, invasion and EMT, and promoted the apoptosis of MM cells by blocking the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Delineating the dynamic metabolic profile of Qi-Yu-San-Long decoction in rat urine using UPLC-QTOF-MSE coupled with a post-targeted screening strategy

Qi-Yu-San-Long decoction (QYSLD) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been clinically used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) for more than 20 years. However, to date, metabolic-related studies on QYSLD have not been performed. In this study, a post-targeted screening strategy based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight full information tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS^E) was developed to identify QYSLD-related xenobiotics in rat urine. The chemical compound database of QYSLD constituents was established from previous research, and metabolites related to these compounds were predicted in combination with their possible metabolic pathways. The metabolites were identified by extracted ion chromatograms using predicted m/z values as well as retention time, excimer ions, and fragmentation behavior. Overall, 85 QYSLD-related xenobiotics (20 prototype compounds and 65 metabolites) were characterized from rat urine. The main metabolic reactions and elimination features of QYSLD included oxidation, reduction, decarboxylation, hydrolysis, demethylation, glucuronidation, sulfation, methylation, deglycosylation, acetylation, and associated combination reactions. Of the identified molecules, 14 prototype compounds and 58 metabolites were slowly eliminated, thus accumulating in vivo over an extended period, while five prototypes and two metabolites were present in vivo for a short duration. Furthermore, one prototype and five metabolites underwent the process of “appearing-disappearing-reappearing” in vivo. Overall, the metabolic profile and characteristics of QYSLD in rat urine were determined, which is useful in elucidating the active components of the decoction in vivo, thus providing the basis for studying its mechanism of action.

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A post-targeted screening strategy based on UPLC-QTOF-MS^E was developed.

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Twenty prototype compounds and 65 metabolites of QYSLD were identified in rat urine.

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The main metabolic reactions and elimination features of QYSLD were determined in vivo.

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Dynamic metabolic profiles of QYSLD-related xenobiotics at multiple time intervals were delineated.

Pre-clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modelling study of 4-hydroxyisoleucine using validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A reliable and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based method has been developed for the estimation of 4-hydroxyisoleucine (4-HI), a potent insulinotropic and hypolipidemic agent. The extraction of 4-HI from plasma was accomplished by the protein precipitation technique using l-isoleucine as an internal standard. The separation of analytes was achieved with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in an isocratic flow system on a BEH Shield RP-18 column (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm). 4-HI and l-isoleucine were detected using an electrospray ionization (ESI) ion source, using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) in positive ion mode. The precursor to product ion transitions of 4-HI and l-isoleucine were found at m/z values of 148.19 > 74.02 and 132.17 > 69.04, respectively. As per the guidelines for bioanalytical methods, all validation parameter results were within the acceptable range. The method exhibited a robust and reproducible linearity range of 1–5000 ng mL⁻¹ with a coefficient of regression of 0.9999. The method was successfully applied for the estimation of pharmacokinetic parameters after oral administration of 4-HI (10 mg kg⁻¹) in Wistar rats, by using Thoth Pro (version: 4.3) software. Herein, the two-compartment model was statistically fitted based on AIC and SBC values for evaluation of the pharmacokinetic parameters of 4-HI. Pharmacodynamic studies were also performed by measuring the levels of triglyceride and total cholesterol, and showed that the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data of 4-HI correlated with each other.

A reliable and sensitive UPLC-MS/MS based method has been developed for the estimation of 4-hydroxyisoleucine, a potent insulinotropic and hypolipidemic agent.