Oral processing effort, appetite and acute energy intake in lean and obese adults

Effects of Chewing Gum on Satiety, Appetite Regulation, Energy Intake, and Weight Loss: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

New approaches for the management of obesity, a worldwide problem and a major determinant of disability and mortality, are needed. Mastication influences appetite and satiety mechanisms via actual food or sham feeding. However, the effect of mastication of chewing gum, a type of sham feeding, on appetite regulation has not yet been elucidated.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to evaluate the influence of chewing gum on appetite regulation, satiety, energy intake, and weight loss via randomized controlled Trials.

METHODS

This study was conducted in accordance with the 2020 PRISMA guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42023432699). Electronic databases MEDLINE®/PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from July 2023 to September 2024. The quality of each included study was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, RoB 2.

RESULTS

A total of eight articles with nine RCTs were included in this systematic review. Seven out of nine RCTs evaluated appetite regulation. Five out of seven RCTs reported a significant suppressing effect of hunger, three out of five RCTs reported a significant reduction in desire to eat, and three out of four reported a significant reduction in the desire to eat a sweet snack, all of them compared to the control group. However, the effects on satiety, energy intake, and weight loss are not conclusive.

CONCLUSIONS

Chewing gum could be a promising non-pharmacological tool for obesity management through appetite regulation; however, further research, with sustained RCTs evaluating the sustained effects of gum chewing on appetite and weight management, is needed.

Eating behaviors and incidence of type 2 diabetes in Japanese people: The population-based Panasonic cohort study 15

AIM/INTRODUCTION

This historical cohort study sought to research the relationship between eating behaviors and the incidence of type 2 diabetes in a large, long-term cohort of Japanese subjects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Panasonic Corporation employees who had no history of diabetes and attended yearly health surveys between 2008 and 2018 were included in this study. The main outcome measure was diabetes onset.

RESULTS

This study included 128,594 participants and 6,729 participants who developed type 2 diabetes in the study period. Skipping breakfast, fast eating, snacking after dinner, and eating meals before sleeping were linked with the risk of the incidence of type 2 diabetes. In individuals with a BMI < 25 kg/m2, fast eating (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.61, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.37-1.90), and eating meals before sleeping (HR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.02-1.17) were likewise associated with an increased risk of incident type 2 diabetes. Nevertheless, fast eating (HR: 1.08, 95% CI: 0.89-1.30) and meals before sleeping (HR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.88-1.01) were not related to the occurrence of type 2 diabetes in individuals with a BMI ≥25 kg/m2 (P value for interaction = 0.0007 [fast eating] and 0.007 [meals before sleeping], respectively). No significant interaction effect between sex and eating behavior was found.

CONCLUSIONS

With respect to Japanese people, especially in people with a BMI < 25 kg/m2, eating behaviors may be a risk factor for the occurrence of type 2 diabetes.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of gut peptides expression during fasting and postprandial states in individuals with obesity

Gut peptides play a role in signaling appetite control in the hypothalamus. Limited knowledge exists regarding the release of these peptides in individuals with obesity before and during external stimuli. We hypothesize that the expression of gut peptides is different in the fasting and postprandial states in the scenario of obesity. PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Science Direct electronic databases were searched. The meta-analysis was performed using Review Manager Software. Randomized controlled trials that measured gut peptides in both obese and lean subjects were included in the analysis. A total of 552 subjects with obesity were enrolled in 25 trials. The gut peptide profile did not show any significant difference between obese and lean subjects for glucagon-like peptide 1 (95% confidence interval [CI], -1.21 to 0.38; P = .30), peptide YY (95% CI, -1.47 to 0.18; P = .13), and cholecystokinin (95% CI, -1.25 to 1.28; P = .98). Gut peptides are decreased by an increased high-fat, high-carbohydrate diet and by decreased chewing. There is no statistically significant difference in gut peptides between individuals with obesity and leanness in a fasting state. However, the release of gut peptides is affected in individuals with obesity following external stimuli, such as dietary interventions and chewing. Further studies are necessary to investigate the relationship between various stimuli and the release of gut peptides, as well as their impact on appetite regulation in subjects with obesity.

Associations between eating speed and food temperature and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between eating speed and food temperature and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the Chinese population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between December 2020 to March 2022 from the department of Endocrinology at the Shandong Provincial Hospital. All recruited participants were asked to complete structured questionnaires on their eating behaviors at the time of recruitment. Clinical demographic data such as gender, age, height, weight, familial history of T2DM, prevalence of T2DM and various eating behaviors were collected. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to analyze the associations between eating behaviors and T2DM.

RESULTS

A total of 1,040 Chinese adults were included in the study, including 344 people with T2DM and 696 people without T2DM. Multivariate logistic regression analysis of the general population showed that gender (OR = 2.255, 95% CI: 1.559-3.260, p < 0.001), age (OR = 1.091, 95% CI: 1.075-1.107, p < 0.001), BMI (OR = 1.238, 95% CI: 1.034-1.483, p = 0.020), familial history of T2DM (OR = 5.709, 95% CI: 3.963-8.224, p < 0.001), consumption of hot food (OR = 4.132, 95% CI: 2.899-5.888, p < 0.001), consumption of snacks (OR = 1.745, 95% CI: 1.222-2.492, p = 0.002), and eating speed (OR = 1.292, 95% CI:1.048-1.591, p = 0.016) were risk factors for T2DM.

CONCLUSION

In addition to traditional risk factors such as gender, age, BMI, familial history of T2DM, eating behaviors associated with Chinese culture, including consumption of hot food, consumption of snacks, and fast eating have shown to be probable risk factors for T2DM.

Palatability, glycemic, and insulinemic responses to various carbohydrate formulations: Alternatives for the diagnosis of insulin dysregulation in horses?

BACKGROUND

Oral glycemic challenge (GC) tests are recommended for diagnosis of insulin dysregulation (ID). Various protocols are used, but all have limitations in terms of palatability, ease of use, variable composition, geographic availability, or some combination of these.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVE

To evaluate newly developed formulations with defined carbohydrate composition for use as oral GCs.

ANIMALS

Thirty-four horses and ponies in various metabolic states.

METHODS

Our objectives were carried out in 2 separate cross-over experiments. First, the palatability and acceptance of various GCs (2 syrups, 1 granulate) offered for free intake were compared to glucose mixed in a chaff-based diet. Subsequently, syrups were administered by syringe and compared to an oral glucose test using naso-gastric tubing (tube OGT) to investigate the glycemic and insulinemic responses. Second, these variables were compared in the best performing GC-formulations (granulate further optimized to pelleted formulation and 1 syrup) and a tube OGT. All GCs were administered with equivalent amounts of 0.5 g glycemic carbohydrates per kg body weight.

RESULTS

Only the GC pellets were consumed completely by all horses (consumption time 5 ± 2 min). When administered by syringe, the GC syrup also was well accepted. The insulin concentrations at 120 min correlated significantly between tube OGT and GC pellets (r = .717; P < .001) or GC syrup (r = .913; P < .001). The new GC syrup and GC pellets discriminate between healthy and ID horses.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The GC pellets (DysChEq)™ and GC syrup can be used as palatable and well-accepted oral GC tests for assessment of ID in horses.

The significance and potential of functional food ingredients for control appetite and food intake

Dramatically rising global levels of obesity have raised consumers’ commercial and public health interest in foods that may help control appetite and weight. The satiety cascade consists of sensory, cognitive, physical, and hormonal events following food intake, preventing overeating, and the desire to eat for a long time. Functional foods can be one of the most influential factors in reducing appetite as long as effective ingredients, such as fiber and protein, are used to design these products. Also, functional foods should be designed to reduce appetite at different levels of oral processing, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine by various mechanisms. Therefore, the satiety power of functional foods depends on the type of ingredients and their amount. Because each compound has a different mechanism of action, it is recommended to use different compounds to influence satiety in functional foods.

Relationship between body mass index and masticatory factors evaluated with a wearable device

Numerous studies have evaluated the relationship between eating behavior and obesity, however few studies have objectively assessed eating behavior. Additionally, the association of masticatory behaviors with masticatory performance remains unclear. This study aimed to verify the relationship between masticatory performance and behavior measured by a wearable masticatory counter, and BMI. 365 healthy adults participated. Mastication behaviors, i.e. number of chews and bites, chewing rate, and chewing time, were measured using wearable masticatory counter while consuming one rice ball (100 g). Masticatory performance was evaluated using testing gummy jelly. Lifestyle habits including exercise, walking, and breakfast, were surveyed by questionnaire. The correlation coefficients between masticatory behaviors and performance and BMI were analyzed. Furthermore, multiple regression analysis was performed. The number of chews showed positive correlation with chewing rate, number of bites and chewing time, but no correlation with masticatory performance. BMI had weak but significant negative correlation with number of chews, bites, chewing time, and masticatory performance, but had no correlation with chewing rate. Multiple regression analysis revealed that BMI was associated with sex, age, number of chews, bites, masticatory performance, and walking speed. In conclusion, masticatory behavior and performance were not interrelated, but both were independently associated with BMI weakly.

Impact of income and eating speed on new-onset diabetes among men: a retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of income and eating speed on new-onset diabetes among men.

DESIGN

This was a retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

We used the administrative claims and health check-up data for fiscal years 2010-2015 obtained from the Fukuoka branch of the Japan Health Insurance Association.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 15 474 non-diabetic male employees, aged between 40 and 74 years. They were categorised based on their eating speeds (ie, fast, normal and non-fast).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

To calculate the OR of the development of diabetes, we created generalised linear regression models with diabetes onset as the dependent variable and eating speed and income as covariates and calculated corresponding 95% CI values. The analyses were performed after adjusting the data for age, obesity and comorbidities.

RESULTS

Of the total participants, 620 developed diabetes during the 5-year study period. A univariate analysis using the generalised linear regression model revealed that eating fast (OR: 1.35, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.55) and having a low income wereincome (OR: 1.47, 95% CI 1.24 to 1.74) were significantly associated with the onset of diabetes. After adjusting for age, obesity and comorbidities, both eating fast (OR: 1.17, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.35) and having a low income (OR: 1.24, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.50) were recognised as independent risk factors for diabetes onset.

CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed that eating fast and having a low income were independent risk factors, leading to the development of diabetes. While it is difficult to address income differences, it may be possible to address the factors that contribute to income differences to manage diabetes appropriately and at low healthcare costs. However, eating speed can be controlled. Hence, the provision of education and coaching on dietary habits, including eating speed, may be effective in preventing diabetes onset.

How oro-sensory exposure and eating rate affect satiation and associated endocrine responses-a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Longer oral processing decreases food intake. This can be attributed to greater oro-sensory exposure (OSE) and a lower eating rate (ER). How these factors contribute to food intake, and the underlying physiological mechanisms, remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the independent and simultaneous effects of OSE and ER on satiation and associated endocrine responses.

METHODS

Forty participants in study 1 [mean ± SD age: 24 ± 4 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 22 ± 2] and 20 in study 2 (mean ± SD age: 23 ± 3 y; BMI: 23 ± 2) participated in a 2 × 2 randomized trial. In both studies, participants ate chocolate custard with added caramel sauce (low OSE) or caramel fudge (high OSE) and with short (fast ER) or long breaks (slow ER) in between bites, until fullness. In study 2, endocrine responses were measured during the meal.

RESULTS

In study 1, participants ate (mean ± SEM) 42 ± 15 g less in the slow- than in the fast-ER condition, only within the high-OSE condition (P = 0.04). In study 2, participants ate 66 ± 21 g less in the high- than in the low-OSE condition and there were no intake differences between slow and fast ER (P = 0.35). Eight minutes after starting to eat, insulin concentrations increased by 42%-65% in all treatments compared with the control. At the end of the meal, insulin concentrations were 81% higher in the high-OSE, slow-ER than in the low-OSE, fast-ER condition (P = 0.049). Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) increased by 62%, 5 min after meal onset in the low-OSE, fast-ER condition (P = 0.005). Ghrelin concentrations did not change.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater OSE increases insulin responsiveness. In contrast, PP responses are stronger when OSE is reduced and ER is fast. Insulin and PP responses may mediate the independent effects of OSE and ER on food intake. These may be beneficial eating strategies, particularly for type 2 diabetic patients, to control food intake and maintain glucose homeostasis.This trial was registered at trialregister.nl as NL6544.

Eating speed and the risk of type 2 diabetes: explorations based on real-world evidence

Metabolic syndrome, especially diabetes, has gained global attention over the past few decades and became one of the major public health concerns. Alongside known and well-established risk factors, eating behaviors, mainly eating speed has shown the potential as one of the novel risk factors that could supplement the development of diabetes. However, there is a paucity in evidence, and only a few studies have addressed this question so far. In this review, with a focus on eating speed and the risk of developing diabetes, authors attempted to shed some light on the high-quality studies that were conducted around the world using real-world data in drawing inferences, which could add-on to the literature and assist public in making informed decisions.

Fast eating is a strong risk factor for new-onset diabetes among the Japanese general population

Although many studies that have examined the relationship of type and amount of food and the frequency of eating with new onset of diabetes, there are few reports on the relationship between how meals are eaten, such as skipping breakfast, snacking or food ingestion speed, and the onset of diabetes. We investigated the relationship between eating speed, as well as other eating habits such as snacking and skip breakfast, and new onset of diabetes in a nation-wide Japanese cohort. We obtained data from the nation-wide annual health check program in Japan. In 197,825 participants without diabetes in 2008, questionnaires recorded data on the diet habits (eating speed, snack after supper or before sleep, and skipping breakfast) and unadjusted and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models were used to measure the odds ratio of new-onset diabetes mellitus in a 3-year follow up. The proportion of fast eaters, those who snack after supper, snack before sleep, and skip breakfast was higher in the new-onset diabetes group than in the group who did not develop diabetes mellitus. As compared with the non-fast eater group, fast eaters were generally younger, had higher BMI, had more weight gain from 20 years onwards, and experienced frequent weight fluctuations of ≥3 kg within 1 year. The risk of fast eaters developing diabetes mellitus remained even after correction for multiple factors including age, body weight, rate of weight change, blood pressure, smoking, and alcohol consumption. No other eating habits were independent predictors for onset of diabetes mellitus. Results show that fast eating is a sole predisposing factor among eating habits for new-onset diabetes. Future studies were warranted to evaluate whether avoidance of fast eating is beneficial for prevention of diabetes mellitus.

Impact of composition and texture of protein-added yogurts on oral activity

Understanding how oral processing is altered in response to changes in the composition and mechanical properties of food provides useful information to design food with improved satiating capacity which is largely influenced by oral exposure. In turn, this information deepens the knowledge about the physiology of texture perception. Six yogurts were formulated with different amounts of protein and protein sources and addition of apple cubes: control (C), extra skimmed milk powder-added (MP), whey protein isolate-added (WPI), and whey protein microgels-added (WPM). In addition, MP was also added with maltodextrin (MPMD) and with fresh apple cubes (MPF). Activities of masseter, anterior temporalis and anterior digastric muscles during oral processing of each sample were recorded (electromyography), and jaw movement amplitudes in three dimensions were determined (jaw tracking system). The jaw muscle activities were highly dependent on the type of yogurt. Addition of apple cubes (MPF) almost doubled the oral processing time, number of chews, and muscle activity of all samples. MP and MPMD required similar but lower values of oral processing than MPF attributed to their reinforced network of milk protein. The lowest values were found for WPI, C and WPM, indicating a weaker, more fluid material. These behavioral results, which clearly differentiate the samples, are discussed in connection to the rheological and sensory properties of the yogurts. This study suggests that adding apple cubes significantly alters the oral processing pattern, such that they may be a more effective way of increasing the oral processing time (time exposure) compared to more subtle changes in the protein amount or source. Nevertheless, changes in the protein amount and source also affected, although to a lesser extent, the behavioral, rheological, and sensory properties of yogurt.

Mastication of Nuts under Realistic Eating Conditions: Implications for Energy Balance

The low digestibility and high satiety effects of nuts have been partly attributed to mastication. This work examines chewing forces and the bolus particle size of nuts (walnuts, almonds, pistachios) varying in physical properties under different conditions (with and without water, juice, sweetened yogurt and plain yogurt) along with satiety sensations and gut hormone concentrations following walnut consumption (whole or butter). In a randomized, cross-over design with 50 adults (25 males, 25 females; Body Mass Index (BMI) 24.7 ± 3.4 kg/m²; age: 18⁻52 years old (y/o), the chewing forces and particle size distribution of chewed nuts were measured under different chewing conditions. Appetite sensations were measured at regular intervals for 3 h after nut intake, and plasma samples were collected for the measurement of glucose, insulin and Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). The three nuts displayed different particle sizes at swallowing though no differences in chewing forces were observed. Walnuts with yogurt yielded larger particle sizes than the other treatments. Particle size was not correlated with either food palatability or flavor. Fullness sensations were higher after whole nut than nut butter consumption though there were no significant changes in glucose, insulin, or GLP-1 concentrations under any condition. Changing the conditions at swallowing might influence the release of energy from nuts.

Association of mastication and factors affecting masticatory function with obesity in adults: a systematic review

Background

A substantial number of adults suffer from obesity, that is caused by the risk factor, masticatory dysfunction. The association between mastication and obesity, however, is inconclusive. This systematic review aims to provide literature regarding the association between mastication and factors affecting masticatory function, and obesity in adults.

Methods

Four electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science) were used to search for publications that met the following criteria: published between 2007 and 2016, written in English, and assessed the associations between mastication and obesity among the population aged ≥18 years. The included publications were analyzed based on the study design, main conclusions, and strength of evidence identified by the two authors who screened all the abstracts and full-text articles and, abstracted data, and performed quality assessments by using a critical appraisal tool, the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Cohort Studies Checklists.

Results

A total of 18 articles (16 cross-sectional, 1 cohort studies, and 1 randomized controlled trial [RCT]) met our inclusion criteria and were evaluated. Poorer mastication was associated with obesity in 12 out of 16 cross-sectional studies. One cohort study showed that the obesity group displayed higher tooth loss than the normal weight group. One RCT demonstrated that gum-chewing intervention for 8 weeks significantly decreased waist circumference.

Conclusions

Most studies revealed a positive association between mastication and obesity among adults. Nonetheless, most of them are cross-sectional studies, which are insufficient to demonstrate a causal relation. Further advancement requires RCT, especially an intervention of improvement of mastication and obesity needed to confirm this association.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12903-018-0525-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chewing Stimulation Reduces Appetite Ratings and Attentional Bias toward Visual Food Stimuli in Healthy-Weight Individuals

Based on the theory of incentive sensitization, the exposure to food stimuli sensitizes the brain’s reward circuits and enhances attentional bias toward food. Therefore, reducing attentional bias to food could possibly be beneficial in preventing impulsive eating. The importance of chewing has been increasingly implicated as one of the methods for reducing appetite, however, no studies to investigate the effect of chewing on attentional bias to food. In this study, we investigated whether chewing stimulation (i.e., chewing tasteless gum) reduces attentional bias to food as well as an actual feeding (i.e., ingesting a standardized meal) does. We measured reaction time, gaze direction and gaze duration to assess attentional bias toward food images in pairs of food and non-food images that were presented in a visual probe task (Experiment 1, n = 21) and/or eye-tracking task (Experiment 2, n = 20). We also measured appetite ratings using visual analog scale. In addition, we conducted a control study in which the same number of participants performed the identical tasks to Experiments 1 and 2, but the participants did not perform sham feeding with gum-chewing/actual feeding between tasks and they took a rest. Two-way ANOVA revealed that after actual feeding, subjective ratings of hunger, preoccupation with food, and desire to eat significantly decreased, whereas fullness significantly increased. Sham feeding showed the same trends, but to a lesser degree. Results of the visual probe task in Experiment 1 showed that both sham feeding and actual feeding reduced reaction time bias significantly. Eye-tracking data showed that both sham and actual feeding resulted in significant reduction in gaze direction bias, indexing initial attentional orientation. Gaze duration bias was unaffected. In both control experiments, one-way ANOVAs showed no significant differences between immediately before and after the resting state for any of the appetite ratings, reaction time bias, gaze direction bias, or gaze duration bias. In conclusion, chewing stimulation reduced subjective appetite and attentional bias to food, particularly initial attentional orientation to food. These findings suggest that chewing stimulation, even without taste, odor, or ingestion, may affect reward circuits and help prevent impulsive eating.

Chewing gum decreases energy intake at lunch following a controlled breakfast

The impact of chewing gum on fasting appetite or meal intake has not been studied. We tested the hypothesis that chewing gum would decrease lunch intake after a controlled breakfast, and reduce hunger in fasting and fed states. Seventeen males and sixteen females (21.4 ± 6.3y, BMI 23.8 ± 2.7 kg/m²) participated in a randomized crossover study in which subjects chewed sugar-free gum a total of 1 h on the test day (GC), and did not chew gum on a control day (NG). The 1 h of gum chewing included 20 min while fasting, and two 20-min sessions between breakfast and lunch. Subjects rated their appetite and mood on visual analog scales. After completing the fasting measures, subjects consumed a breakfast shake containing 30% of their measured resting energy expenditure. Three hours later they consumed an ad libitum lunch with water. Fasting ratings of hunger were lower in GC than NG (t = 2.66, p = 0.01). Subjects consumed significantly less pasta (41 g, 68 kcals, t = 2.32, p = 0.03) during GC than NG. In conclusion, gum chewing decreased fasting hunger ratings and lunch energy consumed. Chewing gum may be a useful tool impacting energy balance in this population. Longer studies, especially in other populations, will be required.

Unobtrusive electromyography-based eating detection in daily life: A new tool to address underreporting?

Research on eating behavior is limited by an overreliance on self-report. It is well known that actual food intake is frequently underreported, and it is likely that this problem is overrepresented in vulnerable populations. The present research tested a chewing detection method that could assist self-report methods. A trained sample of 15 participants (usable data of 14 participants) kept detailed eating records during one day and one night while carrying a recording device. Signals recorded from electromyography sensors unobtrusively placed behind the right ear were used to develop a chewing detection algorithm. Results showed that eating could be detected with high accuracy (sensitivity, specificity >90%) compared to trained self-report. Thus, electromyography-based eating detection might usefully complement future food intake studies in healthy and vulnerable populations.

The effect of gum chewing on blood GLP-1 concentration in fasted, healthy, non-obese men

We evaluated the effect of chewing on blood GLP-1 concentration by having volunteers to chew sugarless gum. Our intention was to explore the neural mechanisms regulating the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1(GLP-1). After fasting for 12 h, 12 healthy male, non-obese volunteers (18 < BMI < 30), were asked to chew sugarless gum at a frequency of 80 times every 2 min for a total of 30 min. Blood samples were collected before the start of chewing and 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min after the start of chewing. Satiety and hunger were evaluated on a scale from 0 to 100 at each time point. Compared with the control group, the test group's satiety was increased at 15, 25, and 30 min (p = 0.043, p = 0.014 and p = 0.018, respectively) after they began chewing sugarless gum 80 times every 2 min. The blood GLP-1 level of the test group at 30 min was 49.6 ± 20.3 pmol/l, significantly higher than that of the control group (38.9 ± 20.9 pmol/l; p = 0.031). There was no significant difference in the test group's GLP-1 concentration at each time point. In the control group, compared to baseline, the GLP-1 concentrations at 15, 25, and 30 min were significantly decreased (p = 0.042, p = 0.0214 and p = 0.012, respectively). No significant differences in the blood concentration of glucose, insulin and GIP or hunger were observed between groups. Our study suggests that fasting sugarless gum chewing can increase satiety and reduce the decrease in GLP-1 concentration.

The A allele of cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) SNP 1761667 associates with decreased lipid taste perception in obese Tunisian women

Recent studies have suggested that excessive intake of dietary fat is associated with obesity. Some obese subjects have been reported to exhibit high thresholds for the gustatory detection of lipids via lipid receptors, such as cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36). We studied lingual detection thresholds for emulsions containing oleic acid in obese Tunisian women (n 203) using a three-alternative forced choice (3-AFC) method. Genotyping of the TNF-α (rs1800629), IL-6 (rs1800795) and CD36 (rs1761667) genes was performed to associate with lipid taste perception thresholds. The CD36 genotype distribution was as follows: GG (n 42), AG (n 102) and AA (n 59). Women with the CD36 GG genotype exhibited oral detection thresholds for oleic acid that were more than three times lower than those with the CD36 AA genotype. The present study confirms a high threshold of gustatory fat detection in obese women with the CD36 AA genotype, but there is no significant association with the IL-6 and TNF-α gene polymorphisms.