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Zhou H, Zhang J, Bai L, Liu J, Li H, Hua J, Luo S. Chemical Structure Diversity and Extensive Biological Functions of Specialized Metabolites in Rice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17053. [PMID: 38069376 PMCID: PMC10707428 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242317053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is thought to have been domesticated many times independently in China and India, and many modern cultivars are available. All rice tissues are rich in specialized metabolites (SPMs). To date, a total of 181 terpenoids, 199 phenolics, 41 alkaloids, and 26 other types of compounds have been detected in rice. Some volatile sesquiterpenoids released by rice are known to attract the natural enemies of rice herbivores, and play an indirect role in defense. Momilactone, phytocassane, and oryzalic acid are the most common diterpenoids found in rice, and are found at all growth stages. Indolamides, including serotonin, tryptamine, and N-benzoylserotonin, are the main rice alkaloids. The SPMs mainly exhibit defense functions with direct roles in resisting herbivory and pathogenic infections. In addition, phenolics are also important in indirect defense, and enhance wax deposition in leaves and promote the lignification of stems. Meanwhile, rice SPMs also have allelopathic effects and are crucial in the regulation of the relationships between different plants or between plants and microorganisms. In this study, we reviewed the various structures and functions of rice SPMs. This paper will provide useful information and methodological resources to inform the improvement of rice resistance and the promotion of the rice industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Juan Hua
- Research Center of Protection and Utilization of Plant Resources, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China (J.L.)
| | - Shihong Luo
- Research Center of Protection and Utilization of Plant Resources, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China (J.L.)
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Identification and Isolation Techniques for Plant Growth Inhibitors in Rice. SEPARATIONS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/separations10020105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant growth inhibitors (PGIs) in rice (Oryza sativa), or rice allelochemicals, are secondary metabolites that are either exudated by rice plants to cope with natural competitors or produced during the decomposition of rice by-products in the paddy fields. Of these, the major groups of rice PGIs include phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and fatty acids, which also exhibit potential medicinal and pharmaceutical properties. Recently, the exploitation of rice PGIs has attracted considerable attention from scientists worldwide. The biosynthesis, exudation, and release of PGIs are dependent on environmental conditions, relevant gene expression, and biodiversity among rice varieties. Along with the mechanism clarification, numerous analytical methods have been improved to effectively support the identification and isolation of rice PGIs during the last few decades. This paper provides an overview of rice PGIs and techniques used for determining and extracting those compounds from rice. In particular, the features, advantages, and limitations of conventional and upgraded extraction methods are comprehensively reported and discussed. The conventional extraction methods have been gradually replaced by advanced techniques consisting of pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and solid-phase extraction (SPE). Meanwhile, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC), mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS), infrared spectroscopy (IR), near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), and X-ray crystallography are major tools for rice PGI identification and confirmation. With smart agriculture becoming more prevalent, the statistics of rice PGIs and extraction methods will help to provide useful datasets for building an autonomous model for safer weed control. Conceivably, the efficient exploitation of rice PGIs will not only help to increase the yield and economic value of rice but may also pave the way for research directions on the development of smart and sustainable rice farming methods.
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Liu Z, Ma X, Zhang N, Yuan L, Yin H, Zhang L, An T, Xu Y. Phenylpropanoid amides from Solanum rostratum and their phytotoxic activities against Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1174844. [PMID: 37123827 PMCID: PMC10130401 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1174844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Solanum rostratum, an annual malignant weed, has seriously damaged the ecological environment and biodiversity of invasion area. This alien plant gains a competitive advantage by producing some new phytotoxic substances to inhibit the growth of native plants, thus achieving successful invasion. However, the chemical structures, inhibitory functions and action mechanisms of phytotoxic substances of S. rostratum remain unclear. Methods In this study, to clarify the chemical structures of phytotoxic substances from S. rostratum, we isolated phenylpropanoid amides from the plant. Their structures were identified by comprehensive HR-ESIMS, NMR and ECD data. And the inhibitory functions of isolated phenylpropanoid amides on one model plant (Arabidopsis thaliana) were also investigated. In addition, the action mechanisms of active phenylpropanoid amides were revealed by antioxidant-related enzymes [Catalase (CAT), Peroxidase (POD), Superoxide dismutase (SOD)] activities and corresponding molecular docking analyses. Results and Discussion Phytochemical research on the whole plant of S. rostratum led to the isolation and identification of four new phenylpropanoid amides (1-4), together with two known analogues (5-6). All the compounds showed phytotoxic effects with varying levels on the seed germination and root elongation of one model plant (Arabidopsis thaliana), especially compound 2 and 4. Likewise, compounds 2 and 4 displayed potent inhibitory effects on antioxidant-related enzyme (POD). In addition, compounds 2 and 4 formed common conventional hydrogen bonds with residues Ala34 and Ser35 in POD revealed by molecular docking analyses. These findings not only helped to reveal the invasion mechanism of S. rostratum from the perspective of "novel weapons hypothesis", but also opened up new ways for the exploitation and utilization of S. rostratum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixiang Liu
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xiaoqing Ma
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Linlin Yuan
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hongrui Yin
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
| | - Lingling Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou, China
| | - Tong An
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China
- *Correspondence: Tong An, ; Yubin Xu,
| | - Yubin Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), Taizhou, China
- *Correspondence: Tong An, ; Yubin Xu,
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Rahaman F, Shukor Juraimi A, Rafii MY, Uddin K, Hassan L, Chowdhury AK, Karim SMR, Yusuf Rini B, Yusuff O, Bashar HMK, Hossain A. Allelopathic potential in rice - a biochemical tool for plant defence against weeds. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1072723. [PMID: 36589133 PMCID: PMC9795009 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1072723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Rice is a key crop for meeting the global food demand and ensuring food security. However, the crop has been facing great problems to combat the weed problem. Synthetic herbicides pose a severe threat to the long-term viability of agricultural output, agroecosystems, and human health. Allelochemicals, secondary metabolites of allelopathic plants, are a powerful tool for biological and eco-friendly weed management. The dynamics of weed species in various situations are determined by crop allelopathy. Phenolics and momilactones are the most common allelochemicals responsible for herbicidal effects in rice. The dispersion of allelochemicals is influenced not only by crop variety but also by climatic conditions. The most volatile chemicals, such as terpenoids, are usually emitted by crop plants in drought-stricken areas whereas the plants in humid zones release phytotoxins that are hydrophilic in nature, including phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids. The allelochemicals can disrupt the biochemical and physiological processes in weeds causing them to die finally. This study insight into the concepts of allelopathy and allelochemicals, types of allelochemicals, techniques of investigating allelopathic potential in rice, modes of action of allelochemicals, pathways of allelochemical production in plants, biosynthesis of allelochemicals in rice, factors influencing the production of allelochemicals in plants, genetical manipulation through breeding to develop allelopathic traits in rice, the significance of rice allelopathy in sustainable agriculture, etc. Understanding these biological phenomena may thus aid in the development of new and novel weed-control tactics while allowing farmers to manage weeds in an environmentally friendly manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferdoushi Rahaman
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Abdul Shukor Juraimi
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Y. Rafii
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
- Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kamal Uddin
- Department of Land Management, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Lutful Hassan
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Abul Kashem Chowdhury
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali, Bangladesh
| | | | - Bashir Yusuf Rini
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali, Bangladesh
| | - Oladosu Yusuff
- Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - H. M. Khairul Bashar
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia
- On-Farm Research Division (OFRD), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
| | - Akbar Hossain
- Soil Science Division, Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research Institute, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
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Horne SM, Ugrinov A, Prüβ BM. The Food Anti-Microbials β-Phenylethylamine (-HCl) and Ethyl Acetoacetate Do Not Change during the Heating Process. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10040418. [PMID: 33920266 PMCID: PMC8069388 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10040418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
β-Phenylethylamine hydrochloride (PEA-HCl) and ethyl acetoacetate (EAA) are anti-microbials with applications in food processing. As food anti-microbials, the compounds will have to withstand the cooking process without changing to toxic compounds. With this Communication, we address the question of whether PEA and EAA are altered when heated to 73.9 °C or 93.3 °C. A combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry was used to analyze solutions of PEA(-HCl) or EAA in beef broth or water. In addition, the anti-microbial activity of PEA-HCl and EAA was compared between heated and unheated samples at a range of concentrations. The gas chromatograms of PEA(-HCl) and EAA showed one peak at early retention times that did not differ between the heated and unheated samples. The mass spectra for PEA and EAA were near identical to those from a spectral database and did not show any differences between the heated and unheated samples. We conclude that PEA(-HCl) and EAA formed pure solutions and were not altered during the heating process. In addition, the anti-microbial activity of PEA-HCl and EAA did not change after the heating of the compounds. Regardless of temperature, the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for PEA-HCl were 20.75 mmol mL−1 for Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium. For EAA, the MICs were 23.4 mmol mL−1 for E. coli and 15.6 mmol mL−1 for S. enterica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley M. Horne
- Department of Microbiological Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA;
| | - Angel Ugrinov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA;
| | - Birgit M. Prüβ
- Department of Microbiological Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-701-231-7848
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Ho TL, Nguyen TTC, Vu DC, Nguyen NY, Nguyen TTT, Phong TNH, Nguyen CT, Lin CH, Lei Z, Sumner LW, Le VV. Allelopathic Potential of Rice and Identification of Published Allelochemicals by Cloud-Based Metabolomics Platform. Metabolites 2020; 10:metabo10060244. [PMID: 32549240 PMCID: PMC7344986 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10060244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The methanol extracts of nine popular cultivated Vietnamese rice cultivars (Oryza sativa L.cv. OM 2395, 5451, 6976, 380, 5930, 4498, 3536, N406, and 7347) were used to explore their allelopathic potential on barnyardgrass (Echinochola crus-galli L.). At 0.1 g mL-1, OM 5930, OM 4498, and OM 6976 correlatively possessed greatest phytotoxicity on barnyardgrass shoot (98.77%, 90.75%, and 87.17%) and root (99.39%, 92.83%, and 86.56%) growth. The following study aimed to detect previously-known allelochemicals in those rice using XCMS online cloud-based metabolomics platform. Twenty allelochemicals were semi-quantified and seven of them were detected predominantly and five was putatively confirmed in OM 5930 (mg/ 100g fresh rice) as salicylic acid (5.0076), vanillic acid (0.1246), p-coumaric acid (0.1590), 2,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid (0.1045), and cinnamic acid (3.3230). These compounds were active at concentrations greater than 0.5 mM and the average EC50 were 1.24 mM. The results indicated that OM 5930 may use as promising candidates in weed biological control for rice production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi L. Ho
- Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam; (T.N.H.P.); (C.T.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +84-944-376-329
| | - Tu T. C. Nguyen
- College of Agriculture and Applied Biosciences—Can Tho University, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam; (T.T.C.N.); (V.V.L.)
| | - Danh C. Vu
- Faculty of Technology, Van Lang University, Ho Chi Minh City 70000, Vietnam;
| | - Nhu Y. Nguyen
- Center for Agroforestry, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (N.Y.N.); (C.-H.L.)
| | - Trang T. T. Nguyen
- Cultivation and Plant Protection Station. Thoi Lai District, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam;
| | - Trieu N. H. Phong
- Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam; (T.N.H.P.); (C.T.N.)
| | - Cuong T. Nguyen
- Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam; (T.N.H.P.); (C.T.N.)
| | - Chung-Ho Lin
- Center for Agroforestry, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (N.Y.N.); (C.-H.L.)
| | - Zhentian Lei
- Metabolomics Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (Z.L.); (L.W.S.)
| | - Lloyd W. Sumner
- Metabolomics Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; (Z.L.); (L.W.S.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Vang V. Le
- College of Agriculture and Applied Biosciences—Can Tho University, Can Tho 94000, Vietnam; (T.T.C.N.); (V.V.L.)
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Wang W, Li Y, Dang P, Zhao S, Lai D, Zhou L. Rice Secondary Metabolites: Structures, Roles, Biosynthesis, and Metabolic Regulation. Molecules 2018; 23:E3098. [PMID: 30486426 PMCID: PMC6320963 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23123098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important food crop providing energy and nutrients for more than half of the world population. It produces vast amounts of secondary metabolites. At least 276 secondary metabolites from rice have been identified in the past 50 years. They mainly include phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, and their derivatives. These metabolites exhibit many physiological functions, such as regulatory effects on rice growth and development, disease-resistance promotion, anti-insect activity, and allelopathic effects, as well as various kinds of biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review focuses on our knowledge of the structures, biological functions and activities, biosynthesis, and metabolic regulation of rice secondary metabolites. Some considerations about cheminformatics, metabolomics, genetic transformation, production, and applications related to the secondary metabolites from rice are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixuan Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Yuying Li
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Pengqin Dang
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Siji Zhao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Daowan Lai
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Ligang Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Liu X, Tian F, Tian Y, Wu Y, Dong F, Xu J, Zheng Y. Isolation and Identification of Potential Allelochemicals from Aerial Parts of Avena fatua L. and Their Allelopathic Effect on Wheat. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:3492-3500. [PMID: 27079356 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Five compounds (syringic acid, tricin, acacetin, syringoside, and diosmetin) were isolated from the aerial parts of wild oats (Avena fatua L.) using chromatography columns of silica gel and Sephadex LH-20. Their chemical structures were identified by means of electrospray ionization and high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as (1)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic analyses. Bioassays showed that the five compounds had significant allelopathic effects on the germination and seedling growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The five compounds inhibited fresh wheat as well as the shoot and root growth of wheat by approximately 50% at a concentration of 100 mg/kg, except for tricin and syringoside for shoot growth. The results of activity testing indicated that the aerial parts of wild oats had strong allelopathic potential and could cause different degrees of influence on surrounding plants. Moreover, these compounds could be key allelochemicals in wild-oat-infested wheat fields and interfere with wheat growth via allelopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Fajun Tian
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
- Henan Institute of Science and Technology , Xinxiang, Henan 453003, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingying Tian
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanbing Wu
- Henan Institute of Science and Technology , Xinxiang, Henan 453003, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengshou Dong
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongquan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
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Cho MH, Lee SW. Phenolic Phytoalexins in Rice: Biological Functions and Biosynthesis. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:29120-33. [PMID: 26690131 PMCID: PMC4691099 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161226152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytoalexins are inducible secondary metabolites possessing antimicrobial activity against phytopathogens. Rice produces a wide array of phytoalexins in response to pathogen attacks and environmental stresses. With few exceptions, most phytoalexins identified in rice are diterpenoid compounds. Until very recently, flavonoid sakuranetin was the only known phenolic phytoalexin in rice. However, recent studies have shown that phenylamides are involved in defense against pathogen attacks in rice. Phenylamides are amine-conjugated phenolic acids that are induced by pathogen infections and abiotic stresses including ultra violet (UV) radiation in rice. Stress-induced phenylamides, such as N-trans-cinnamoyltryptamine, N-p-coumaroylserotonin and N-cinnamoyltyramine, have been reported to possess antimicrobial activities against rice bacterial and fungal pathogens, an indication of their direct inhibitory roles against invading pathogens. This finding suggests that phenylamides act as phytoalexins in rice and belong to phenolic phytoalexins along with sakuranetin. Phenylamides also have been implicated in cell wall reinforcement for disease resistance and allelopathy of rice. Synthesis of phenolic phytoalexins is stimulated by phytopathogen attacks and abiotic challenges including UV radiation. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that biosynthetic pathways including the shikimate, phenylpropanoid and arylmonoamine pathways are coordinately activated for phenolic phytoalexin synthesis, and related genes are induced by biotic and abiotic stresses in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man-Ho Cho
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Korea.
| | - Sang-Won Lee
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Korea.
- Department of Plant Molecular Systems Biotechnology & Crop Biotech Institute, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Korea.
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