Investigating the effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on the composition and ultrastructure of green leafy vegetables with important nutritional values

Occurrence, toxicity, impact and removal of selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): A review

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most frequently used pharmaceuticals for human therapy, pet therapeutics, and veterinary feeds, enabling them to enter into water sources such as wastewater, soil and sediment, and seawater. The control of NSAIDs has led to the advent of the novel materials for treatment techniques. Herein, we review the occurrence, impact and toxicity of NSAIDs against aquatic microorganisms, plants and humans. Typical NSAIDs, e.g., ibuprofen, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naproxen and aspirin were detected at high concentrations in wastewater up to 2,747,000 ng L-1. NSAIDs in water could cause genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, locomotive disorders, body deformations, organs damage, and photosynthetic corruption. Considering treatment methods, among adsorbents for removal of NSAIDs from water, metal-organic frameworks (10.7-638 mg g-1) and advanced porous carbons (7.4-400 mg g-1) were the most robust. Therefore, these carbon-based adsorbents showed promise in efficiency for the treatment of NSAIDs.

Safflower Flavonoid 3′5′Hydroxylase Promotes Methyl Jasmonate-induced Anthocyanin Accumulation in Transgenic Plants

Flavonoids are the most abundant class of secondary metabolites that are ubiquitously involved in plant development and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Flavonoid biosynthesis involves multiple channels of orchestrated molecular regulatory factors. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) has been demonstrated to enhance flavonoid accumulation in numerous plant species; however, the underlying molecular mechanism of MeJA-induced flavonoid biosynthesis in safflower is still not evident. In the present study, we revealed the underlying molecular basis of a putative F3′5′H gene from safflower imparting MeJA-induced flavonoid accumulation in transgenic plants. The constitutive expression of the CtF3′5′H1 gene was validated at different flowering stages, indicating their diverse transcriptional regulation through flower development in safflower. Similarly, the CtF3′5′H1-overexpressed Arabidopsis plants exhibit a higher expression level, with significantly increased anthocyanins and flavonoid content, but less proanthocyanidins than wild-type plants. In addition, transgenic plants treated with exogenous MeJA revealed the up-regulation of CtF3′5′H1 expression over different time points with significantly enhanced anthocyanin and flavonoid content as confirmed by HPLC analysis. Moreover, CtF3′5′H1- overexpressed Arabidopsis plants under methyl violet and UV-B irradiation also indicated significant increase in the expression level of CtF3′5′H1 with improved anthocyanin and flavonoid content, respectively. Noticeably, the virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) assay of CtF3′5′H1 in safflower leaves also confirmed reduced anthocyanin accumulation. However, the CtF3′5′H1 suppression in safflower leaves under MeJA elicitation demonstrated significant increase in total flavonoid content. Together, our findings confirmed that CtF3′5′H1 is likely mediating methyl jasmonate-induced flavonoid biosynthesis in transgenic plants via enhanced anthocyanin accumulation.

Influence of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) on Photosynthetic Parameters and Secondary Metabolites of Plants from Fabaceae Family

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) are commonly used painkillers, anti-inflammatory agents, and fever reducers. They arrive in the environment from municipal wastewater and/or agriculture waste, affecting growing plants. In our study, the impact of NSAIDs, namely, diclofenac, indomethacin, naproxen, and paracetamol, on four plant species from the Fabaceae family (Cicer arietinum, Pisum sativum, Lens culinaris, and Vicia faba) was tested. The assimilation rate and stomatal conductance decreased for all plants treated with NSAIDs. Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in the leaves of plants under stress declined by more than 15% compared with the control plants, while the flavonoids and total phenols decreased to a lesser extent. In contrast, the plants treated with NSAIDs emit terpenes and green leaf were volatile, at a level of some nmol m−2 s−1, which could influence the atmospheric reaction and ozone formation.

Uptake, Occurrence, and Effects of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Analgesics in Plants and Edible Crops

The plant uptake of pharmaceuticals that include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics from contaminated environment has benefits and drawbacks. These pharmaceuticals enter plants mostly through irrigation with contaminated water and application of sewage sludge as soil fertilizer. Aquatic plants withdraw these pharmaceuticals from water through their roots. Numerous studies have observed the translocation of these pharmaceuticals from the roots into the aerial tissues. Furthermore, the occurrence of the metabolites of NSAIDs in plants has been observed. This article provides an in-depth critical review of the plant uptake of NSAIDs and analgesics, their translocation, and toxic effects on plant species. In addition, the occurrence of metabolites of NSAIDs in plants and the application of constructed wetlands using plants for remediation are reviewed. Factors that affect the plant uptake and translocation of these pharmaceuticals are examined. Gaps and future research are provided to guide forthcoming investigations on important aspects that worth explorations.

Response of Two Crop Plants, Zea mays L. and Solanum lycopersicum L., to Diclofenac and Naproxen

Among numerous contaminants, the ubiquitous occurrence of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the environment and their plausible harmful impact on nontarget organisms have made them one of the most important areas of concern in recent years. Crop plants can also potentially be exposed to NSAIDs, since the concentration of these pharmaceuticals is constantly rising in the surface water and soil. Our goal was to evaluate the stress response of two crop plants, maize and tomato, to treatment with selected NSAIDs, naproxen and diclofenac. The focus of the research was on the growth response, photosynthetic efficiency, selected oxidative stress factors (such as the H₂O₂ level and the rate of lipid peroxidation) as well as the total phenolic content, which represents the non-enzymatic protectants against oxidative stress. The results indicate that susceptibility to the NSAIDs that were tested is dependent on the plant species. A higher sensitivity of tomato manifested in growth inhibition, a decrease in the content of the photosynthetic pigments and a reduction in the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII and the activity of PSII, which was estimated using the F_v/F_m and F_v/F₀ ratios. Based on the growth results, it was also possible to reveal that diclofenac had a more toxic effect on tomato. In contrast to tomato, in maize, neither the content of the photosynthetic pigments nor growth appeared to be affected by DFC and NPX. However, both drugs significantly decreased in maize F_v and F_m, which are particularly sensitive to stress. A higher H₂O₂ concentration accompanied, in most cases, increasing lipid peroxidation, indicating that oxidative stress occurred in response to the selected NSAIDs in the plant species that were studied. The higher phenolic content of the plants after NSAIDs treatment may, in turn, indicate the activation of defense mechanisms in response to the oxidative stress that is triggered by these drugs.

Eszett (ẞ; ß)-carotene is an erroneous, non-existent false positive of beta (β)-carotene

There are several isomers of carotene, the main ones being alpha and beta carotene (i.e., α-carotene and β-carotene). The latter serves as a precursor for vitamin A, and is thus a well-studied carotenoid in health, food, and nutrition research. A German special character, the Eszett (uppercase or capital ẞ; lowercase ß), has been confused with the Greek, lowercase beta (β) in some papers in the biomedical literature, and when the lowercase Eszett is written in italics, it looks even more similar to the Greek letter beta. Curiously, this linguistic error has given rise to a "new" form of carotene, Eszett (ß)-carotene, which does not exist. A search on PubMed, Elsevier's sciencedirect.com, and Springer Nature's SpringerLink platforms reveals that there are potentially dozens, if not hundreds of cases or more of this false-positive carotene "isomer," which was supposed to represent β-carotene, but has, through a typographic error, represented a "new" and non-existent form of carotene, ß-carotene. This clearly represents erroneous literature that needs correction.

The Impact Assessment of CuO Nanoparticles on the Composition and Ultrastructure of Triticum aestivum L

In the present study, the effects of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) on bioactive compounds, the ultrastructural modifications which can occur, and elemental content of wheat were investigated. Changes in the wheat plants grown in presence or absence of CuO NPs were estimated. The application of CuO NPs decreased the amounts of chlorophylls and carotenoids and increased the amounts of polyphenols and antioxidant capacity. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the plants treated with CuO NPs were negatively affected. Soil amending completely inhibited the accumulation of seventeen elements, while K, Br, Al, and Zn were accumulated and Cl, Na, Ba, and Sr content decreased in wheat samples, regardless of the type of NPs applied. The application of chemically obtained NPs induced the most significant changes, completely blocking the assimilation of Fe, Mo, As, Sb, and Sm, and favoring much higher accumulation of Br than biogenic NPs. The decrease in chlorophylls and carotenoids is correlated with increase in antioxidant capacity, and occurs with increase of Mo, Al, Mg, K, Zn, and Ca content. The behavior of total polyphenols is correlated with Br content, and antagonist to Al behavior. From the point of view of bioactive compounds, the most affected plants were those that grew in the presence of CuO-NP-cel, while from the point of view of elementary analysis, the most affected plants were those grown in the presence of CuO-NP. By corroborating the obtained results, it was found that the CuO NPs have a negative effect on wheat plants.

Can Ultrasound Therapy Be an Environmental-Friendly Alternative to Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Knee Osteoarthritis Treatment?

The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most used drugs in knee OA (osteoarthritis) treatment. Despite their efficiency in pain and inflammation alleviation, NSAIDs accumulate in the environment as chemical pollutants and have numerous genetic, morphologic, and functional negative effects on plants and animals. Ultrasound (US) therapy can improve pain, inflammation, and function in knee OA, without impact on environment, and with supplementary metabolic beneficial effects on cartilage compared to NSAIDs. These features recommend US therapy as alternative for NSAIDs use in knee OA treatment.

Sewage sludge in agriculture - the effects of selected chemical pollutants and emerging genetic resistance determinants on the quality of soil and crops - a review

In line with sustainable development principles and in order to combat climate change, which contributes to progressive soil depletion, various solutions are being sought to use treated sewage sludge as a soil amendment to improve soil quality and enrich arable soils with adequate amounts of biogenic compounds. This review article focuses on the effects of the agricultural use of biosolids on the environment. The article reviews the existing knowledge on selected emerging contaminants in treated sewage sludge and describes the impact of these pollutants on the environment and living organisms based on 183 publications selected from over 16,000 papers on related topics published over the last ten years. This study deals not only with chemical contaminants but also genetic determinants of resistance to these compounds. Current research has questioned the agricultural use of biosolids due to the presence of mutual interactions between antibiotics, heavy metals, the genetic determinants of resistance (antibiotic resistance genes - ARGs and heavy metal resistance genes - HMRGs) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as the risks associated with their transfer to the environment. This study emphasizes the need for more extensive legal regulations that account for other pollutants of environmental concern (PEC), particularly in countries where sewage sludge is applied in agriculture most extensively. Future research should focus on more effective methods of eliminating PEC from sewage sludge, especially from the sludge that is used to fertilize agricultural land, because even small amounts of these micropollutants can have serious implications for the health and life of humans and animals.

Discovery and Development of Inflammatory Inhibitors from 2-Phenylchromonone (Flavone) Scaffolds

Flavonoids are compounds based on a 2-phenylchromonone scaffold. Flavonoids can be divided into flavonoids, flavonols, dihydroflavones, anthocyanins, chalcones and diflavones according to the oxidation degree of the central tricarbonyl chain, the connection position of B-ring (2-or 3-position), and whether the tricarbonyl chain forms a ring or not. There are a variety of biological activities about flavonoids, such as anti-inflammatory activity, anti-oxidation and anti-tumor activity, and the antiinflammatory activity is apparent. This paper reviews the anti-inflammatory activities and mechanisms of flavonoids and their derivatives reported in China and abroad from 2011 till date (2011-2020), in order to find a good drug scaffold for the study of anti-inflammatory activities.