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Xu Z, Chen S, Wang Y, Tian Y, Wang X, Xin T, Li Z, Hua X, Tan S, Sun W, Pu X, Yao H, Gao R, Song J. Crocus genome reveals the evolutionary origin of crocin biosynthesis. Acta Pharm Sin B 2024; 14:1878-1891. [PMID: 38572115 PMCID: PMC10985130 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus (saffron) is a globally autumn-flowering plant, and its stigmas are the most expensive spice and valuable herb medicine. Crocus specialized metabolites, crocins, are biosynthesized in distant species, Gardenia (eudicot) and Crocus (monocot), and the evolution of crocin biosynthesis remains poorly understood. With the chromosome-level Crocus genome assembly, we revealed that two rounds of lineage-specific whole genome triplication occurred, contributing important roles in the production of carotenoids and apocarotenoids. According to the kingdom-wide identification, phylogenetic analysis, and functional assays of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs), we deduced that the duplication, site positive selection, and neofunctionalization of Crocus-specific CCD2 from CCD1 members are responsible for the crocin biosynthesis. In addition, site mutation of CsCCD2 revealed the key amino acids, including I143, L146, R161, E181, T259, and S292 related to the catalytic activity of zeaxanthin cleavage. Our study provides important insights into the origin and evolution of plant specialized metabolites, which are derived by duplication events of biosynthetic genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichao Xu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Basis and New Drug Development of Natural and Nuclear Drugs, Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100193, China
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Yalin Wang
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Ya Tian
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xiaotong Wang
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Tianyi Xin
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Basis and New Drug Development of Natural and Nuclear Drugs, Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zishan Li
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xin Hua
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Shengnan Tan
- Analysis and Testing Center of Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Xiangdong Pu
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Hui Yao
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Basis and New Drug Development of Natural and Nuclear Drugs, Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ranran Gao
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Jingyuan Song
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Basis and New Drug Development of Natural and Nuclear Drugs, Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100193, China
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Xu X, Chen B, Zhang J, Lan S, Wu S, Xie W. Transcriptome and metabolome analysis revealed the changes of Geniposide and Crocin content in Gardenia jasminoides fruit. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:6851-6861. [PMID: 37392282 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08613-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a perennial evergreen shrub of G. jasminoides of Rubiaceae. Geniposide and Crocin are important components in the fruit of G. jasminoides. In addition to being used as medicinal materials, they are also widely used in food, medicine, cosmetics, and other fields. They have high medicinal value, economic value, and ornamental value. However, at present, the utilization rate of G. jasminoides resources is low, mainly focused on germplasm cultivation, primary processing, and clinical pharmacology, and there are few studies on the quality of Gardenia fruit. METHODS AND RESULTS Based on transcriptome sequencing and metabolic group analysis, the morphological and structural changes of Gardenia fruit with young fruit, middle fruit, and ripe fruit were analyzed, and the formation mechanism and content changes of Geniposide and Crocin in Gardenia fruit were studied. The content of Geniposide decreased with the development of fruit, so did the expression of the main structural gene GES, G10H, and IS in its synthesis pathway, while the content of Crocin increased with the development of fruit, and the expression of the main structural gene CCD, ALDH, and UGT in its synthesis pathway also increased. The relationship between the morphological structure of G. jasminoides and the accumulation of Geniposide and Crocin was summarized. CONCLUSIONS This study not only provides a theoretical basis for the mining and utilization of Geniposide and Crocin, but also provides a theoretical basis for genetic background for the identification and cloning of bioactive substances in gardenia fruit in future. At the same time, it provides support for increasing the dual-use value of G. jasminoides and breeding excellent germplasm resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Xu
- College of Landscape and Architecture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, Fujian, China
| | - Bihua Chen
- Fujian Academy of Forestry Sciences, Fuzhou, 350012, Fujian, China.
| | - Juan Zhang
- Fujian Academy of Forestry Sciences, Fuzhou, 350012, Fujian, China
| | - Siren Lan
- College of Landscape and Architecture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, Fujian, China
| | - Shasha Wu
- College of Landscape and Architecture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, Fujian, China
| | - Weiwei Xie
- Fujian Academy of Forestry Sciences, Fuzhou, 350012, Fujian, China
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Cheng C, Yang R, Yin L, Zhang J, Gao L, Lu R, Yang Y, Wang P, Mu X, Zhang S, Zhang B, Zhang J. Characterization of Carotenoid Cleavage Oxygenase Genes in Cerasus humilis and Functional Analysis of ChCCD1. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12112114. [PMID: 37299092 DOI: 10.3390/plants12112114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoid cleavage oxygenases (CCOs) are key enzymes that function in degrading carotenoids into a variety of apocarotenoids and some other compounds. In this study, we performed genome-wide identification and characterization analysis of CCO genes in Cerasus humilis. Totally, nine CCO genes could be classified into six subfamilies, including carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 1 (CCD1), CCD4, CCD7, CCD8, CCD-like and nine-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), were identified. Results of gene expression analysis showed that ChCCOs exhibited diverse expression patterns in different organs and in fruits at different ripening stages. To investigate the roles of ChCCOs in carotenoids degradation, enzyme assays of the ChCCD1 and ChCCD4 were performed in Escerichia coli BL21(DE3) that can accumulate lycopene, β-carotene and zeaxanthin. The prokaryotic expressed ChCCD1 resulted in obvious degradation of lycopene, β-carotene and zeaxanthin, but ChCCD4 did not show similar functions. To further determine the cleaved volatile apocarotenoids of these two proteins, headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometer analysis was performed. Results showed that ChCCD1 could cleave lycopene at 5, 6 and 5', 6' positions to produce 6-methy-5-hepten-2-one and could catalyze β-carotene at 9, 10 and 9', 10' positions to generate β-ionone. Our study will be helpful for clarifying the roles of CCO genes especially ChCCD1 in regulating carotenoid degradation and apocarotenoid production in C. humilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunzhen Cheng
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Rui Yang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Lu Yin
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Jianying Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Limin Gao
- Agricultural Technology Extension Service Center of Qianyang County, Baoji 721199, China
| | - Rong Lu
- Rural Revitalization Bureau of Pu County, Linfen 041200, China
| | - Yan Yang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Pengfei Wang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Xiaopeng Mu
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Shuai Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
| | - Jiancheng Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
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Wang Y, Xu J, Liu A. Identification of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase genes and functional analysis reveal DoCCD1 is potentially involved in beta-ionone formation in Dendrobium officinale. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:967819. [PMID: 35991395 PMCID: PMC9387305 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.967819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The carotenoids are the most widely distributed secondary metabolites in plants and can be degraded by carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) to form apocarotenoids including an important C13 compound beta-ionone. Volatile beta-ionone can confer the violet and woody fragrance to plant essential oils, flowers, fruits, and vegetables, which therefore has been used in various industries. Dendrobium officinale is a traditional medicinal plant. However, there was limited information on the key enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of beta-ionone in D. officinale. In the present study, beta-ionone was detected in stems and leaves of D. officinale and genome-wide identification and expression profiles of CCD genes were subsequently carried out. There were nine DoCCD members in D. officinale. According to the phylogenetic relationship, DoCCD proteins were classified into six subfamilies including CCD1, CCD4, CCD7, CCD8, nine-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) and zaxinone synthase (ZAS). DoCCD genes showed distinctive expression profiles and DoCCD1 gene was abundantly expressed in eight tissues. Induced expression of DoCCD1 gene resulted in discoloration of Escerichia coli strains that can accumulate carotenoids. Analysis of Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometer showed that DoCCD1 enzyme can cleave lycopene to produce 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one and pseudoionone and also catalyze beta-carotene to form beta-ionone. Expression of DoCCD1 gene in Nicotiana benthamiana leaf resulted in production of abundant beta-ionone. Overall, the present study first provides valuable information on the CCD gene family in D. officinale, function of DoCCD1 gene as well as production of beta-ionone through genetic modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
- Bio-Innovation Center of DR PLANT, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Jianchu Xu
- Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Aizhong Liu
- Key Laboratory for Forest Resources Conservation and Utilization in the Southwest Mountains of China, Ministry of Education, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
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He L, Cheng L, Wang J, Liu J, Cheng J, Yang Z, Cao R, Han Y, Li H, Zhang B. Carotenoid Cleavage Dioxygenase 1 Catalyzes Lutein Degradation To Influence Carotenoid Accumulation and Color Development in Foxtail Millet Grains. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:9283-9294. [PMID: 35876162 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Foxtail millet is a minor but economically important crop in certain regions of the world. Millet color is often used to judge grain quality, yet the molecular determinants of millet coloration remain unclear. Here, we explored the relationship between SiCCD1 and millet coloration in yellow and white millet varieties. Carotenoid levels declined with grain maturation and were negatively correlated with SiCCD1 expression, which was significantly higher in white millet as compared to yellow millet during the color development stage. Cloning of the SiCCD1 promoter and CDS sequences from these different millet varieties revealed the presence of two additional cis-regulatory elements within the SiCCD1 promoter in white millet varieties, including an enhancer-like GC motif element associated with anoxic specific inducibility and a GCN4-motif element associated with endosperm expression. Dual-luciferase reporter assays confirmed that SiCCD1 promoter fragments containing these additional cis-acting elements derived from white millet varieties were significantly more active than those from yellow millet varieties, consistent with the observed SiCCD1 expression patterns. Further in vitro enzyme detection assays confirmed that SiCCD1 primarily targets and degrades lutein. Together, these data suggest that SiCCD1 promoter variation was a key factor associated with the observed differences in SiCCD1 expression, which in turn led to the difference in millet coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu He
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Maize Research Institute, Shanxi Agricultural University, Xinzhou 034000, China
| | - Lu Cheng
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Junjie Wang
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Jing Liu
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Jinjin Cheng
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Zhirong Yang
- Department of Foundation, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Rui Cao
- Shanxi Biological Research Institute Co., Ltd, Taiyuan 030000, China
| | - Yuanhuai Han
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Institute of Agricultural Bioengineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Co-Innovation Centre for Endemic Crops Production with High-quality and Efficiency in Loess Plateau, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Hongying Li
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Institute of Agricultural Bioengineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Institute of Agricultural Bioengineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Co-Innovation Centre for Endemic Crops Production with High-quality and Efficiency in Loess Plateau, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
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Shindo K, Sakemi Y, Shimode S, Takagi C, Uwagaki Y, Hattan JI, Akao M, Usui S, Kiyokawa A, Komaki M, Murahama M, Takemura M, Ishikawa I, Misawa N. Changes of Crocin and Other Crocetin Glycosides in Saffron Through Cooking Models, and Discovery of Rare Crocetin Glycosides in the Yellow Flowers of Freesia Hybrida. Front Nutr 2022; 9:885412. [PMID: 35911122 PMCID: PMC9331930 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.885412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocetin glycosides such as crocin are noted as functional food materials since the preventive effects of crocin have been reported against chronic disease and cancer. However, it is unclear how these apocarotenoids are structurally changed through cooking for our intake. We examined such changes in crocetin glycosides (crocin, tricrocin, and crocin-3) contained in saffron (stigmas of Crocus sativus) through cooking models. These glycosides were almost kept stable in boiling for 20 min (a boiled cooking model), while hydrolysis of the ester linkage between glucose and the crocetin aglycone occurred in a grilled cooking model (180°C, 5 min), along with a 13-cis isomerization reaction in a part of crocetin subsequently generated. We further here revealed that the yellow petals of freesia (Freesia x hybrida) with yellow flowers accumulate two unique crocetin glycosides, which were identified to be crocetin (mono)neapolitanosyl ester and crocetin dineapolitanosyl ester. A similar result as above was obtained on their changes through the cooking models. Utility applications of the freesia flowers as edible flowers are also suggested in this study. Additionally, we evaluated singlet oxygen (1O2)-quenching activities of the crocetin glycosides contained in saffron and freesia, and crocetin and 13-cis crocetin contained in the grilled saffron, indicating that they possessed moderate 1O2-quenching activities (IC50 24–64 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutoshi Shindo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
- CaroProTech Corporation, Nomi-shi, Japan
- *Correspondence: Kazutoshi Shindo
| | - Yuka Sakemi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Saki Shimode
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chiharu Takagi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yohei Uwagaki
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi-shi, Japan
| | - Jun-ichiro Hattan
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi-shi, Japan
| | - Miu Akao
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shiori Usui
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ayako Kiyokawa
- Ishikawa Agriculture and Forestry Research Center, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Masako Komaki
- Ishikawa Agriculture and Forestry Research Center, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Minoru Murahama
- Ishikawa Agriculture and Forestry Research Center, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Miho Takemura
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi-shi, Japan
| | | | - Norihiko Misawa
- CaroProTech Corporation, Nomi-shi, Japan
- Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi-shi, Japan
- Norihiko Misawa
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Li Y, Gao R, Zhang J, Wang Y, Kong P, Lu K, Adnan , Liu M, Ao F, Zhao C, Wang L, Gao X. The biochemical and molecular investigation of flower color and scent sheds lights on further genetic modification of ornamental traits in Clivia miniata. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2022; 9:uhac114. [PMID: 35929604 PMCID: PMC9343915 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhac114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Clivia miniata is renowned for its evergreen and strap-like leaves, whereas its floral color and scent are lacking diversity. Here, anthocyanin, volatile terpene, and carotenoid metabolisms were integrally investigated in C. miniata flowers. The results showed that pelargonidins and lutein might cooperate to confer orange or yellow color to C. miniata flowers, but only a trace amount of (+)-limonene was detected. The expression levels of CmF3'H and CmDFR appeared to be responsible for the ratio of cyanidin and pelargonidin derivatives in C. miniata, and the low expression of CmF3'H was responsible for the lack of cyanidins in flowers. Moreover, the CmF3'H promoter could not be activated by CmMYBAs, suggesting that it was controlled by novel regulators. Only two CmTPSs were functional, with CmTPS2 responsible for (+)-limonene synthesis, contributing to the monotonous flower volatile terpenes of C. miniata. CmCCD1a and CmCCD1b were able to cleave carotenoids at the 5,6 (5',6'), and 9,10 (9',10') positions to generate volatile apocarotenoids, whereas the substrates found in low-quantities or specific subcellular localizations of CmCCD1s might constrain volatile apocarotenoid release. Consequently, activating F3'H and introducing novel F3'5'H or versatile TPS may be effective ways to modify the floral color and scent, respectively. Alternatively, modifying the carotenoid flux or CCD1 localization might affect floral color and scent simultaneously. Taking these results together, the present study provides a preliminary deciphering of the genetic constraints underlying flower color and scent development, and proposes possible schemes for further genetic modification of ornamental traits in C. miniata and other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Yanan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Peiru Kong
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Keyu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Adnan
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Meng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | - Feng Ao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of MOE and Institute of Genetics & Cytology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
| | | | - Li Wang
- Corresponding authors. E-mail: ; ;
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Zheng X, Yang Y, Al-Babili S. Exploring the Diversity and Regulation of Apocarotenoid Metabolic Pathways in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:787049. [PMID: 34956282 PMCID: PMC8702529 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.787049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In plants, carotenoids are subjected to enzyme-catalyzed oxidative cleavage reactions as well as to non-enzymatic degradation processes, which produce various carbonyl products called apocarotenoids. These conversions control carotenoid content in different tissues and give rise to apocarotenoid hormones and signaling molecules, which play important roles in plant growth and development, response to environmental stimuli, and in interactions with surrounding organisms. In addition, carotenoid cleavage gives rise to apocarotenoid pigments and volatiles that contribute to the color and flavor of many flowers and several fruits. Some apocarotenoid pigments, such as crocins and bixin, are widely utilized as colorants and additives in food and cosmetic industry and also have health-promoting properties. Considering the importance of this class of metabolites, investigation of apocarotenoid diversity and regulation has increasingly attracted the attention of plant biologists. Here, we provide an update on the plant apocarotenoid biosynthetic pathway, especially highlighting the diversity of the enzyme carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (CCD4) from different plant species with respect to substrate specificity and regioselectivity, which contribute to the formation of diverse apocarotenoid volatiles and pigments. In addition, we summarize the regulation of apocarotenoid metabolic pathway at transcriptional, post-translational, and epigenetic levels. Finally, we describe inter- and intraspecies variation in apocarotenoid production observed in many important horticulture crops and depict recent progress in elucidating the genetic basis of the natural variation in the composition and amount of apocarotenoids. We propose that the illustration of biochemical, genetic, and evolutionary background of apocarotenoid diversity would not only accelerate the discovery of unknown biosynthetic and regulatory genes of bioactive apocarotenoids but also enable the identification of genetic variation of causal genes for marker-assisted improvement of aroma and color of fruits and vegetables and CRISPR-based next-generation metabolic engineering of high-value apocarotenoids.
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The Relation between Drying Conditions and the Development of Volatile Compounds in Saffron ( Crocus sativus). Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226954. [PMID: 34834046 PMCID: PMC8621395 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Saffron is derived from the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus L. The drying process is the most important post-harvest step for converting C. sativus stigmas into saffron. The aim of this review is to evaluate saffron's post-harvest conditions in the development of volatile compounds and its aroma descriptors. It describes saffron's compound generation by enzymatic pathways and degradation reactions. Saffron quality is described by their metabolite's solubility and the determination of picrocrocin, crocins, and safranal. The drying process induce various modifications in terms of color, flavor and aroma, which take place in the spice. It affects the aromatic species chemical profile. In the food industry, saffron is employed for its sensory attributes, such as coloring, related mainly to crocins (mono-glycosyl esters or di-glycosyl polyene).
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Liang N, Yao MD, Wang Y, Liu J, Feng L, Wang ZM, Li XY, Xiao WH, Yuan YJ. CsCCD2 Access Tunnel Design for a Broader Substrate Profile in Crocetin Production. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:11626-11636. [PMID: 34554747 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c04588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Crocetin, a high-value apocarotenoid in saffron, is widely applied to the fields of food and medicine. However, the existing method of obtaining crocetin through large-scale cultivation is far from meeting the market demand. Microbial synthesis of crocetin is a potential alternative to traditional resources, and it is found that carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) is the critical enzyme to synthesize crocetin. So, in this study, we used "hybrid-tunnel" engineering to obtain variants of Crocus sativus-derived CsCCD2, essential for zeaxanthin conversion into crocetin, with a broader substrate specificity and higher catalytic efficiency. Variants including S323A, with a lower charge bias and a larger tunnel size than the wild-type, showed a 5-fold higher crocetin titer in yeast-based fermentations. S323A could also convert the β-carotene substrate to crocetin dialdehyde and exhibited a 12.83-fold greater catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) toward zeaxanthin than the wild-type in vitro. This strategy enabled the production of 107 mg/L crocetin in 5 L fed-batch fermentation, higher than that previously reported. Our findings demonstrate that engineering access tunnels to expand the substrate profile by in silico protein design represents a viable strategy to refine the catalytic properties of enzymes across a range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Liang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ming-Dong Yao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Lu Feng
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | | | - Xiang-Yu Li
- CABIO Biotech (Wuhan) Co. Ltd., Wuhan 436070, China
| | - Wen-Hai Xiao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Georgia Tech Shenzhen Institute, Tianjin University, Tangxing Road 133, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518071, China
| | - Ying-Jin Yuan
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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