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Pieprzyca E, Skowronek R, Czekaj P. Toxicological Analysis of Cases of Mixed Poisonings with Synthetic Cathinones and Other Drugs of Abuse. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 46:1008-1015. [PMID: 34849994 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Some of the most commonly used new psychoactive substances (NPSs) are synthetic cathinones (SCs). The literature increasingly indicates that SCs have a significant addictive potential and pose a high risk to human health and life. The vast majority of SC users take a number of substances simultaneously. This article lists the detected concentrations in 26 fatal and 2 non-fatal real cases, in which SCs or an SC along with other substances were determined in blood and other biological materials. The following SCs were found most often: α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone, N-ethylpentedrone (NEP), 4-methyl-α-ethylaminopentiophenone and N-ethylhexedrone. In addition to detected SCs, the analyzed samples showed the presence of conventional drugs such as methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, amphetamine and NPSs from groups other than SCs, such as synthetic cannabinoids (UR-144 and 5F-AMB), synthetic opioids (AH-7921, U-47700 and 4-fluorobutyrfentanyl) and others (desoxypipradrol and etizolam). The quantitative analyses were carried out by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). This study presents pioneering data on concentrations and effects of 4-ethylmethcathinone, NEP, N-ethylbuphedrone and mexedrone. Also noteworthy are the data on SCs that until now have rarely been described in the literature together with specified blood concentrations. The analyzed cases of taking SCs were associated with fatal intoxication (n = 26), driving under the influence of drugs (n = 2) and death caused by beating (n = 1). Taking SCs has serious side effects that can lead to multiple organ failure and death. The use of more than one psychoactive substance simultaneously (including at least one SC) contributes to increased SC toxicity. These data could be valuable for further interpretation of other results from toxicological analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Pieprzyca
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 18 Street, Katowice 40-752, Poland
| | - Rafał Skowronek
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 18 Street, Katowice 40-752, Poland
| | - Piotr Czekaj
- Department of Cytophysiology, Chair of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 18 Street, Katowice 40-752, Poland
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Corkery JM, Schifano F. First Death Involving 4-Fluoroethylphenidate (4F-EPH): Case Report, User Experiences, and Review of the Related Literature. Acad Forensic Pathol 2022; 12:149-166. [PMID: 36545302 PMCID: PMC9761242 DOI: 10.1177/19253621221142480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Background 4-Fluoroethylphenidate (4F-EPH) is a psychoactive substance, sold primarily over the Internet as a `research chemical'. Recreational and `functional' use of this drug has been reported by online user fora. Scientifically-based data on the pharmacological, physiological, psychopharmacological, toxicological, and epidemiological characteristics of this molecule is non-existent. The aim of this paper is to remedy this situation. Methods Recent literature (including 'grey') was searched to update what is known about 4F-EPH, especially its toxicity. This was supplemented by netnographic examinations of internet sites. Results The resultant information is presented, including details of the first reported death involving 4F-EPH use in 2016. There are no international controls imposed on 4F-EPH. However, it has been made a controlled drug in several European countries, including the United Kingdom since 31 May 2017, as well as Canada. Conclusions It is vital that any other cases, including non-fatal overdoses, are documented so that a firmer scientific evidence-base can be established for this molecule. This will then help inform clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Martin Corkery
- John Martin Corkery, BA, MSc, MPhil, PgCert in L & T
in HE, FHEA, Health Research Building, University of Hertfordshire,
College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL10 9AB, United
Kingdom;
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3
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Gavai AK, Bouzembrak Y, van den Bulk LM, Liu N, van Overbeeke LF, van den Heuvel LJ, Mol H, Marvin HJ. Artificial intelligence to detect unknown stimulants from scientific literature and media reports. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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4
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Abstract
There is growing recognition that substance use is associated with the emergence of psychosis.Elements of post-modernity dominate contemporary social contexts and operate as existential background factors that contribute to the emergence of substance-related psychotic phenomena, particularly use of potent and highly rewarding novel psychoactive substances (NPS). About 25% of first-episode psychoses are substance-induced (SIP). DSM-5 SIP diagnosis is based on the assumption that symptoms are transient and disappear after sustained abstinence. This narrowed definition does not consider the issue of persistent SIP. There is a clear need for a new diagnostic framework that provides reliable, unambiguous clinical criteria to differentiate between comorbid conditions (i.e., schizophrenia patients with a substance use disorder) and substance-related psychoses. In the present contribution, we aim to outline a novel and separate clinical entity: substancerelated exogenous psychosis (SREP). Within this diagnostic category, we refer to both transientand persistent psychoses associated with substance use. SREP is conceived as a distinct psychoticdisorder with psychopathological specificities that clearly differentiate it from schizophrenia. We address differences in terms of clinical presentation, epidemiology, etiological models and treatment response. SREP is characterized by altered states of consciousness, persecutory delusions, visual and cenesthetic hallucinations, impulsivity and psychomotor agitation, affectiveand negative symptoms, a pervasive feeling of unreality and intact insight. Delusions are typically secondary to abnormal perception resulting from a characteristic "sensorialization" of the world. Longitudinal studies are warranted to substantiate our hypothesis of a novel diagnostic categoryand support the clinical validity of SREP. This may have important implications in terms of early differential diagnosis and staging (i.e., between comorbid conditions, persistent and transientsubstance-related psychotic states) as well as choice of treatment interventions.
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Loi B, Sahai MA, De Luca MA, Shiref H, Opacka-Juffry J. The Role of Dopamine in the Stimulant Characteristics of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS)-Neurobiological and Computational Assessment Using the Case of Desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP). Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:806. [PMID: 32670057 PMCID: PMC7289955 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stimulant drugs, including novel psychoactive substances (NPS, formerly “legal highs”) have addictive potential which their users may not realize. Stimulants increase extracellular dopamine levels in the brain, including the reward and addiction pathways, through interacting with dopamine transporter (DAT). This work aimed to assess the molecular and atomistic mechanisms of stimulant NPS actions at DAT, which translate into biological outcomes such as dopamine release in the brain’s reward pathway. We applied combined in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods and selected 2-diphenylmethylpiperidine (2-DPMP) as an example of stimulant NPS for this study. We measured in vitro binding of 2-DPMP to rat striatum and accumbens DAT by means of quantitative autoradiography with a selective DAT-radioligand [125I]RTI-121. We evaluated the effects of intravenously administered 2-DPMP on extracellular dopamine in the accumbens-shell and striatum using in vivo microdialysis in freely moving rats. We used dynamic modeling to investigate the interactions of 2-DPMP within DAT, in comparison with cocaine and amphetamine. 2-DPMP potently displaced the radioligand in the accumbens and striatum showing dose-dependence from 0.3 to 30 μM. IC50 values were: 5.65 × 10-7M for accumbens shell and 6.21 × 10-7M for dorsal striatum. Dose-dependent responses were also observed in accumbens-shell and striatum in vivo, with significant increases in extracellular dopamine levels. Molecular dynamics simulations identified contrasting conformational changes of DAT for inhibitors (cocaine) and releasers (amphetamine). 2-DPMP led to molecular rearrangements toward an outward-facing DAT conformation that suggested a cocaine-type effect. The present combination of molecular modeling with experimental neurobiological procedures allows for extensive characterization of the mechanisms of drug actions at DAT as the main molecular target of stimulants, and provides an insight into the role of dopamine in the molecular and neurobiological mechanisms of brain responses to stimulant NPS that have addictive potential. Such knowledge reveals the risk of addiction related to NPS use. The research presented here can be adapted for other psychostimulants that act at their membrane protein targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Loi
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy, Postgraduate Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Michelle A Sahai
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Hana Shiref
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, United Kingdom
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Lehmann S, Kieliba T, Thevis M, Rothschild MA, Mercer-Chalmers-Bender K. Fatalities associated with NPS stimulants in the Greater Cologne area. Int J Legal Med 2019; 134:229-241. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-019-02193-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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7
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Rewarding effects of 2-desoxypipradrol in mice. Neurosci Lett 2019; 705:46-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Chen F, Li W, Sahoo B, Kreyenschulte C, Agostini G, Lund H, Junge K, Beller M. Hydrogenation of Pyridines Using a Nitrogen-Modified Titania-Supported Cobalt Catalyst. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:14488-14492. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201803426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Feng Chen
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Wu Li
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Basudev Sahoo
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Carsten Kreyenschulte
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Giovanni Agostini
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Henrik Lund
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Kathrin Junge
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Matthias Beller
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
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Chen F, Li W, Sahoo B, Kreyenschulte C, Agostini G, Lund H, Junge K, Beller M. Hydrogenation of Pyridines Using a Nitrogen-Modified Titania-Supported Cobalt Catalyst. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201803426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Feng Chen
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Wu Li
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Basudev Sahoo
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Carsten Kreyenschulte
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Giovanni Agostini
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Henrik Lund
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Kathrin Junge
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
| | - Matthias Beller
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V. an der Universität Rostock; Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a Rostock 18059 Germany
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Davidson C, Raby CAR, Barrese V, Ramsey J. In Vitro Neurochemical Assessment of Methylphenidate and Its "Legal High" Analogs 3,4-CTMP and Ethylphenidate in Rat Nucleus Accumbens and Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:149. [PMID: 29892233 PMCID: PMC5985416 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-dichloromethylphenidate (3,4-CTMP) and ethylphenidate are new psychoactive substances and analogs of the attention deficit medication methylphenidate. Both drugs have been reported on online user fora to induce effects similar to cocaine. In the UK, 3,4-CTMP appeared on the drug market in 2013 and ethylphenidate has been sold since 2010. We aimed to explore the neurochemical effects of these drugs on brain dopamine and noradrenaline efflux. 3,4-CTMP and ethylphenidate, purchased from online vendors, were analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy to confirm their identity. Drugs were then tested in adolescent male rat brain slices of the nucleus accumbens and stria terminalis for effects on dopamine and noradrenaline efflux respectively. Fast cyclic voltammetry was used to measure transmitter release. Methylphenidate (10 μM) increased evoked dopamine and noradrenaline efflux by 4- and 2-fold, respectively. 3,4-CTMP (0.1 and 1 μM) increased evoked dopamine and noradrenaline efflux by ~6-fold and 2-fold, respectively. Ethylphenidate (1 μM) doubled evoked dopamine and noradrenaline efflux in both cases. 3,4-CTMP's effect on dopamine efflux was greater than that of methylphenidate, but ethylphenidate appears to be a weaker dopamine transporter inhibitor. Experiments using the dopamine D2 antagonist haloperidol, the noradrenaline α2 receptor antagonist yohimbine, the dopamine transporter inhibitor GBR12909 and the noradrenaline transporter inhibitor desipramine confirmed that we were measuring dopamine in the accumbens and noradrenaline in the ventral BNST. All three psychostimulant drugs, through their effects on dopamine efflux, may have addictive liability although the effect of 3,4-CTMP on dopamine suggests that it might be most addictive and ethylphenidate least addictive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin Davidson
- Basic Medical Science, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom.,Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | | | - Vincenzo Barrese
- Basic Medical Science, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Ramsey
- TICTAC Communications Ltd, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Mdege ND, Meader N, Lloyd C, Parrott S, McCambridge J. The Novel Psychoactive Substances in the UK Project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations. PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.3310/phr05040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundAlthough illegal drug use has largely been declining in the UK over the past decade, this period has witnessed the emergence of a range of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) (‘legal highs’). These are new, mostly synthetic, substances that mimic the effects of existing drugs). Despite there being many causes for concern in relation to NPS, there has been little prior study of the burden associated with their use in public health terms. Clarity is lacking on research priorities in this rapidly developing literature.ObjectivesTo inform the development of public health intervention research on NPS by reviewing existing data on their use, associated problems and potential responses to such problems.DesignA scoping review and narrative synthesis of selected bodies of evidence was undertaken to summarise and evaluate what is known about NPS use and the related harms of, and responses to, such use. Relevant literature was identified from electronic databases (covering January 2006 to June 2016 inclusive), Google (Google Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA), relevant websites and online drug forums and by contacting experts. Articles were included if they were primary studies, secondary studies involving the analysis and interpretation of primary research or discussion papers. A conceptual framework postulating an evidence-informed public health approach to NPS use in the UK was developed through a pragmatic literature review, the iterative development of concepts and finalisation in light of the results from the empirical review work. The process also involved feedback from various stakeholders. Research recommendations were developed from both strands of work.ResultsA total of 995 articles were included in the scoping review, the majority of which related to individual-level health-related adverse effects attributable to NPS use. The prevalence of lifetime NPS use varied widely between (e.g. with higher prevalence in young males) and within population subgroups. The most commonly reported adverse effects were psychiatric/other neurological, cardiovascular, renal and gastrointestinal manifestations, and there is limited evidence available on responses. In these and other respects, available evidence is at an early stage of development. Initial evidence challenges the view that NPS should be treated differently from other illicit drugs. The conceptual framework indicated that much of the evidence that would be useful to inform public health responses does not yet exist. We propose a systems-based prevention approach that develops existing responses, is multilevel and life course informed in character, and emphasises commonalities between NPS and other legal and illegal drug use. We make 20 recommendations for research, including nine key recommendations.LimitationsScoping reviews do not interrogate evidence in depth, and the disjunction between the scoping review and the conceptual framework findings is worthy of careful attention.ConclusionsKey research recommendations build on those that have previously been made and offer more evidence-based justification and detail, as previous recommendations have not yet been acted on. The case for decision-making on commissioning new research based on these recommendations is both strong and urgent.Future workThe validity of recommendations generated through this project could be enhanced via further work with research commissioners, policy-makers, researchers and the public.Study registrationThe systematic review element of this study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42016026415.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreen D Mdege
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Nick Meader
- Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York, York, UK
| | - Charlie Lloyd
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Steve Parrott
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
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Santacroce R, Ruiz Bennasar C, Sancho Jaraiz JR, Fiori F, Sarchione F, Angelini F, Catalano G, Carenti ML, Corkery JM, Schifano F, Di Giannantonio M, Martinotti G. A matter of life and death: substance-caused and substance-related fatalities in Ibiza in 2015. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657183 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES AND METHODS In the framework of the EU-funded project "EU-Madness," we collected and analysed all the reports of fatalities directly or indirectly related to substances of abuse registered in Ibiza from January to September 2015, in order to analyse the characteristics of the sample, the identified substances, and the nature of deaths associated with their consumption. RESULTS A significant increase of substance-caused deaths with respect to the previous 4 years has been highlighted. Most of the subjects were young males, more than half were not Spanish. Males prevailed also amongst the victims of traffic accidents and suicides. The most commonly involved substances included MDMA, alcohol, cocaine, THC, opiates and prescription drugs. CONCLUSIONS Although the use of NPS is rapidly increasing in Europe, according to the results from our sample, alcohol and well-known stimulants (MDMA and cocaine) are still the substances of abuse mainly involved in the cases of substance-caused and substance-related fatalities. The significant increase of fatalities in Ibiza in the last 5 years is an issue that must be taken into account and should be better investigated, as other theories besides NPS-increased diffusion should be proposed, and therefore, targeted prevention strategies should be designed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Santacroce
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy.,Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | | | | | - Federica Fiori
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Fabiola Sarchione
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Federica Angelini
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | | | | | - John Martin Corkery
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Massimo Di Giannantonio
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Giovanni Martinotti
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy.,Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
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Qu B, Mangunuru HPR, Wei X, Fandrick KR, Desrosiers JN, Sieber JD, Kurouski D, Haddad N, Samankumara LP, Lee H, Savoie J, Ma S, Grinberg N, Sarvestani M, Yee NK, Song JJ, Senanayake CH. Synthesis of Enantioenriched 2-Alkyl Piperidine Derivatives through Asymmetric Reduction of Pyridinium Salts. Org Lett 2016; 18:4920-4923. [PMID: 27661252 PMCID: PMC10405300 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.6b02401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An Ir-catalyzed enantioselective hydrogenation of 2-alkyl-pyridines has been developed using ligand MeO-BoQPhos. High levels of enantioselectivities up to 93:7 er were obtained. The resulting enantioenriched piperidines can be readily converted into biologically interesting molecules such as the fused tricyclic structures 5, 6, and 7 in 99:1 er, providing a novel, concise synthetic route to this family of chiral piperidine-containing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Qu
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Hari P R Mangunuru
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Xudong Wei
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Keith R Fandrick
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Jean-Nicolas Desrosiers
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Joshua D Sieber
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Dmitry Kurouski
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Nizar Haddad
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Lalith P Samankumara
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Heewon Lee
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Jolaine Savoie
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Shengli Ma
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Nelu Grinberg
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Max Sarvestani
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Nathan K Yee
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Jinhua J Song
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Chris H Senanayake
- Chemical Development, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
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The potential utility of some legal highs in CNS disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 64:267-74. [PMID: 26232510 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade there has been an explosion of new drugs of abuse, so called legal highs or novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Many of these abused drugs have unknown pharmacology, but their biological effects can be anticipated from their molecular structure and possibly also from online user reports. When considered with the findings that some prescription medications are increasingly abused and that some abused drugs have been tested clinically one could argue that there has been a blurring of the line between drugs of abuse and clinically used drugs. In this review we examine these legal highs/NPS and consider whether, based on their known or predicted pharmacology, some might have the potential to be clinically useful in CNS disorders.
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Survey of knowledge of legal highs (novel psychoactive substances) amongst London pharmacists. DRUGS AND ALCOHOL TODAY 2015. [DOI: 10.1108/dat-03-2015-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to determine pharmacists’ knowledge of legal highs (novel psychoactive substances (NPS)).
Design/methodology/approach
– A questionnaire was handed out at two London pharmacist continuing education events in mid-2014. These events update pharmacists about developments of interest/relevance to the profession and to improve their practice. A total of 54 forms were returned; a response rate of 26 percent.
Findings
– Most pharmacists had poor knowledge of NPS and many considered that NPS were not important to their work, with few having had to advise customers in this area. Despite this, the majority thought that they had insufficient information about NPS. There was a negative correlation between the age of the pharmacist and knowledge of NPS.
Research limitations/implications
– The sample is a self-selected one drawn from registered pharmacists working in community pharmacies in northwest London, and thus does not include hospital pharmacies. Self-selection means that respondents may only reflect those who are interested in the NPS phenomenon and not the wider pharmacy community. The geographical area covered may not be representative of London as a whole, or indeed other parts of the UK or other EU countries.
Practical implications
– It is clear that pharmacists do not know much about NPS but would like to know more. This information might improve their practice.
Social implications
– Pharmacists, easier to see than general practitioners, could be a useful source of information for NPS misusers.
Originality/value
– There have been no previous attempts to gauge the level of knowledge by pharmacists of legal highs/NPS in the UK or elsewhere to our knowledge.
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Glanville J, Dargan PI, Wood DM. 4-methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydrooxazol-2-amine (4,4'-DMAR, 4,4'-dimethylaminorex): availability, prevalence of use, desired effects and acute toxicity. Hum Psychopharmacol 2015; 30:193-8. [PMID: 25784180 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE 4-Methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydrooxazol-2-amine (4,4'-dimethylaminorex (4,4'-DMAR)) is a derivative of the controlled substances aminorex and 4-methylaminorex marketed as a potential novel psychoactive substance. This paper brings together the published scientific and 'grey' literature to understand 4,4'-DMAR as a novel psychoactive substance. METHODS Searches of the published scientific and 'grey' literature, using the keywords '4-methyl-euphoria', '4-methyl-U4Euh', '4-M-4-MAR', '4,4-dimethylaminorex', '4,4'-DMAR', 'para-methyl-4-aminorex' and 'Serotoni', were undertaken to identify information on the availability, prevalence of use and desired/unwanted effects of 4,4'-DMAR. RESULTS No studies have reported the prevalence of use of 4,4'-DMAR. Internet snapshot studies in April and May 2014 showed availability of 4,4'-DMAR from one and two Internet suppliers respectively. Price decreased with increasing purchase amounts from €12/g for a 1-g purchase to €2.20/g for a 100-g purchase in April 2014. Internet discussion fora suggest that the desired and unwanted effects of 4,4'-DMAR are similar to those seen with other sympathomimetic drugs such as 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine and mephedrone, although the duration of unwanted effects and 'comedown' appear to be longer. Unwanted effects were reported at doses of 5-200 mg, which overlaps with the reported doses (10-200 mg) associated with desired effects. 4,4'-DMAR has been detected, along with other drugs, in 27 deaths in Europe; the contribution of the 4,4'-DMAR in these deaths has not been established. CONCLUSIONS Currently, there appears to limited availability of 4,4'-DMAR; therefore, use is likely to be low. Its desired and unwanted effects appear similar to other sympathomimetic recreational drugs such as methylenedioxy-methamphetamine or mephedrone.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Glanville
- General Medicine, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK; Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
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Zawilska JB. "Legal Highs"--An Emerging Epidemic of Novel Psychoactive Substances. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 120:273-300. [PMID: 26070762 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
During the last decade, there has been an increase in the availability and use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), also known as "legal highs," across the world. They include a wide range of products, from natural plant-originated substances to synthetic compounds, that can be purchased both online and from high street retailers. "Legal highs" mimic psychoactive effects of illicit drugs of abuse. However, they are claimed to consist of compounds that are legal to sell, possess, and use, often labeled as "not for human consumption" to circumvent drug abuse legislation. Based on the spectrum of their actions on cognitive processes, mood, and behavior, "legal highs" can be classified into four basis categories: amphetamine- and ecstasy-like stimulants, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), hallucinogenic/dissociative, and opioid-like compounds. NPS may, however, exhibit a combination of these actions due to their designed chemical structure. Although the prevalence and pattern of NPS use differ between various countries, the most popular groups are SCs and psychostimulants, described in this chapter. Currently, there is limited information available on the potential acute toxicity (harms) associated with the use of these substances. However, the number of intoxicated people presenting with emergencies is constantly increasing, providing evidence that negative health and social consequences may indeed seriously affect recreational and chronic users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz, Poland.
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18
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Siddiqi S, Verney C, Dargan P, Wood DM. Understanding the availability, prevalence of use, desired effects, acute toxicity and dependence potential of the novel opioid MT-45. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 53:54-9. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.983239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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19
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Schneir A, Ly BT, Casagrande K, Darracq M, Offerman SR, Thornton S, Smollin C, Vohra R, Rangun C, Tomaszewski C, Gerona RR. Comprehensive analysis of “bath salts” purchased from California stores and the internet. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 52:651-8. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.933231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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20
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21
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Elliott S, Evans J. A 3-year review of new psychoactive substances in casework. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 243:55-60. [PMID: 24810679 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Following the initial popularity of mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) there has been a stream of new "recreational drugs" entering the global market. The lack of clinical studies on the effects and toxicity of these drugs has made interpretation of toxicological findings difficult. In an attempt to assist in a better understanding of the extent of their use and the fatalities that have been linked to these compounds we present our collated findings in post-mortem and criminal casework where these have been detected and/or implicated. Between January 2010 and December 2012 we have detected new psychoactive substances (NPS) in 203 cases, with 120 cases in 2012 alone. The drugs detected in in life or post-mortem blood and urine are, in order of decreasing frequency; mephedrone, 4-methylethcathinone, BZP, MDPV, TFMPP, methoxetamine, 4-fluoromethcathinone, 4-methylamphetamine, PMA, methylone, PMMA, naphyrone, alpha-methyltryptamine, butylone, MDAI, desoxypipradrol, D2PM, MPA, synthetic cannabinoids, 2-AI, 5-IAI, 5-MeODALT, MDPBP, 5/6-APB, pentedrone and pentylone. Other drugs or alcohol were detected in 84% of the cases including other NPS and in fatalities it should be noted that alternative causes of death (including mechanical suicide, accidental death and non-psychoactive drug overdose) accounted for the majority. Related to this was that of all fatalities involving cathinones, 41% of these were hangings or other mechanical suicides, this was a higher proportion than seen with other drugs found in such cases. The presence of multiple NPS and/or other stimulants was a particular feature in various cases, however, of the drug deaths only 7% solely involved NPS. Across all case types and including some cases investigated in 2013, NPS concentrations showed a wide range but these and selected cases are presented to assist toxicological interpretation in future cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Elliott
- ROAR Forensics Ltd, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, Malvern WR14 3SZ, Worcestershire, UK.
| | - Julie Evans
- ROAR Forensics Ltd, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, Malvern WR14 3SZ, Worcestershire, UK
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22
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Helander A, Bäckberg M, Hultén P, Al-Saffar Y, Beck O. Detection of new psychoactive substance use among emergency room patients: results from the Swedish STRIDA project. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 243:23-9. [PMID: 24726531 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2013] [Revised: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The "STRIDA" project monitors the occurrence and trends of new psychoactive substances (NPS; "Internet drugs/designer drugs/legal highs") in Sweden, and collects information about their clinical symptoms, toxicity and associated health hazards. The initial results of the project documented a widespread use of many different NPS by mainly adolescents and young (age range 13-63 years, median 20), male (79%) adults, among cases of drug intoxications presenting at emergency departments and intensive care units across the country. The new substances were identified in samples of urine and blood by a multi-component LC-MS/MS method, and the severity of clinical symptoms were graded by the Poisoning Severity Score (PSS). Of the initial 189 samples submitted for laboratory investigation, 156 (83%) tested positive for at least one drug. Besides classical substances such as ethanol, cannabis and amphetamines, many NPS were detected comprising synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists ("Spice"), piperazines, substituted phenethylamines, synthetic cathinones, hallucinogenic tryptamines, piperidines, opioid related substances, ketamine and related substances, and GABA analogues (in total more than 50 substances). About half of the cases were demonstrated to be multiple drug intoxications, sometimes making it hard to associate the clinical presentations with one specific substance. In conclusion, the STRIDA project has documented use of a broad variety of NPS among mainly young people all over Sweden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Helander
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden; Karolinska University Laboratory, Clinical Pharmacology, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | | | - Peter Hultén
- Swedish Poisons Information Centre, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yasir Al-Saffar
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Olof Beck
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden; Karolinska University Laboratory, Clinical Pharmacology, Stockholm, Sweden
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23
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Simmler LD, Rickli A, Schramm Y, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Pharmacological profiles of aminoindanes, piperazines, and pipradrol derivatives. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 88:237-44. [PMID: 24486525 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Aminoindanes, piperazines, and pipradrol derivatives are novel psychoactive substances found in "Ecstasy" tablets as replacements for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or substances sold as "ivory wave." The pharmacology of these MDMA- and methylphenidate-like substances is poorly known. We characterized the pharmacology of the aminoindanes 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI), 5-iodoaminoindane (5-IAI), and 2-aminoindane (2-AI), the piperazines meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP), trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP), and 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP), and the pipradrol derivatives desoxypipradrol (2-diphenylmethylpiperidine [2-DPMP]), diphenylprolinol (diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol [D2PM]), and methylphenidate. We investigated norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) uptake inhibition using human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK 293) cells that express the respective human monoamine transporters (NET, DAT, and SERT). We also evaluated the drug-induced efflux of NE, DA, and 5-HT from monoamine-preloaded cells and the binding affinity to monoamine transporters and receptors, including trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). 5-IAI and MDAI preferentially inhibited the SERT and NET and released 5-HT. 2-AI interacted with the NET. BZP blocked the NET and released DA. m-CPP and TFMPP interacted with the SERT and serotonergic receptors. The pipradrol derivatives were potent and selective catecholamine transporter blockers without substrate releasing properties. BZP, D2PM, and 2-DPMP lacked serotonergic activity and TAAR1 binding, in contrast to the aminoindanes and phenylpiperazines. In summary, all of the substances were monoamine transporter inhibitors, but marked differences were found in their DAT vs. SERT inhibition profiles, release properties, and receptor interactions. The pharmacological profiles of D2PM and 2-DPMP likely predict a high abuse liability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Simmler
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Rickli
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - York Schramm
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marius C Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, Pharmaceuticals Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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24
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Corkery JM, Elliott S, Schifano F, Corazza O, Ghodse AH. MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; 'sparkle'; 'mindy') toxicity: a brief overview and update. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:345-55. [PMID: 23881883 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; 'sparkle'; 'mindy') is a psychoactive substance, sold primarily over the Internet and in 'head' shops as a 'legal high'. Synthesised and used as a research chemical in the 1990s, MDAI has structural similarities to MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine) and shares its behavioural properties. Recreational use of MDAI appears to have started in Europe around 2007, with a noticeable increase after 2009 in the UK and other countries. Calls to National Poisons Information Services started in 2010, although there were few presentations to emergency departments by patients complaining of undesirable physical and psychiatric effects after taking MDAI. Recreational use of this drug has been reported only occasionally by online user fora. There is little scientifically based literature on the pharmacological, physiological, psychopharmacological, toxicological and epidemiological characteristics of this drug. METHODS Recent literature (including 'grey') was searched to update what is known about MDAI, especially on its toxicity. RESULTS The resultant information is presented, including on the first three UK deaths involving MDAI use in 2011 and 2012. 'Serotonin syndrome' appears to be a possible factor in these fatalities. CONCLUSION It is vital that any other cases, including non-fatal overdoses, are documented so that a scientific evidence base can be established for them.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Corkery
- National Programme for Substance Abuse Deaths (np-SAD), International Centre for Drug Policy, St George's, University of London, London, UK.
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Al-Saffar Y, Stephanson NN, Beck O. Multicomponent LC–MS/MS screening method for detection of new psychoactive drugs, legal highs, in urine—Experience from the Swedish population. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2013; 930:112-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2012] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Prevalence and blood concentrations of desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP) in drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs and in post-mortem cases. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 226:146-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2012] [Revised: 12/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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27
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Meyer MR, Schmitt S, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and detectability of the emerging drug of abuse diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol (D2PM) in rat urine using GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2013; 48:243-249. [PMID: 23378097 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/18/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In the last years, the number of new psychoactive substances, so-called 'legal highs', has enormously increased. They are sold via online shops often with inaccurate and false information about the content. The aim of this work was to study the metabolism and the detectability of the drug of abuse diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol (D2PM) in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry. Five phase I and two phase II metabolites were identified suggesting hydroxylation at the pyrrolidine and diphenyl part as the main metabolic steps. Assuming similar kinetics, an intake of D2PM should be detectable in human urine mainly via its metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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