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Mezyk SP, Baxter M, Celis-Barros C, Grimes TS, Zalupski PR, Rae C, Zarzana CA, Cook AR, Horne GP. Effect of f-element complexation on the radiolysis of 2-ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (HEH[EHP]). Dalton Trans 2024; 53:6881-6891. [PMID: 38407412 DOI: 10.1039/d4dt00424h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
A systematic study of the impact on the chemical reactivity of the oxidising n-dodecane radical cation (RH˙+) with f-element complexed 2-ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (HEH[EHP]) has been undertaken utilizing time-resolved electron pulse radiolysis/transient absorption spectroscopy and high-level quantum mechanical calculations. Lanthanide ion complexed species, [Ln((HEH[EHP])2)3], exhibited vastly increased reactivity (over 10× faster) in comparison to the non-complexed ligand in n-dodecane solvent, whose rate coefficient was k = (4.66 ± 0.22) × 109 M-1 s-1. Similar reactivity enhancement was also observed for the corresponding americium ion complex, k = (5.58 ± 0.30) × 1010 M-1 s-1. The vastly increased reactivity of these f-element complexes was not due to simple increased diffusion-control of these reactions; rather, enhanced hole transfer mechanisms for the complexes were calculated to become energetically more favourable. Interestingly, the observed reactivity trend with lanthanide ion size was not linear; instead, the rate coefficients showed an initial increase (Lu to Yb) followed by a decrease (Tm to Ho), followed by another increase (Dy to La). This behaviour was excellently predicted by the calculated reaction volumes of these complexes. Complementary cobalt-60 gamma irradiations for select lanthanide complexes demonstrated that the measured kinetic differences translated to increased ligand degradation at steady-state timescales, affording ∼38% increase in ligand loss of a 1 : 1 [La((HEH[EHP])2)3] : HEH[EHP] ratio system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Mezyk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90804, USA.
| | - Makayla Baxter
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
| | | | - Travis S Grimes
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
| | - Peter R Zalupski
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
| | - Cathy Rae
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
| | - Christopher A Zarzana
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
| | - Andrew R Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York, 11973, USA
| | - Gregory P Horne
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, P.O. Box 1625, 83415, USA.
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Verlinden B, Wilden A, Van Hecke K, J. M. Egberink R, Huskens J, Verboom W, Hupert M, Weßling P, Geist A, Panak PJ, Hermans R, Verwerft M, Modolo G, Binnemans K, Cardinaels T. Solvent Optimization Studies for a New EURO-GANEX Process with 2,2’-Oxybis( N,N-di- n-decylpropanamide) (mTDDGA) and Its Radiolysis Products. SOLVENT EXTRACTION AND ION EXCHANGE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/07366299.2022.2125151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bart Verlinden
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science, Mol, Belgium
- Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andreas Wilden
- Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung - Nukleare Entsorgung und Reaktorsicherheit- (IEK-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany
| | - Karen Van Hecke
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science, Mol, Belgium
| | - Richard J. M. Egberink
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, Department of Molecules & Materials, Mesa+ Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, Department of Molecules & Materials, Mesa+ Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Willem Verboom
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, Department of Molecules & Materials, Mesa+ Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Michelle Hupert
- Zentralinstitut für Engineering, Elektronik und Analytik (ZEA-3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany
| | - Patrik Weßling
- Institute for Nuclear Waste Disposal (INE), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas Geist
- Institute for Nuclear Waste Disposal (INE), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Petra J. Panak
- Institute for Nuclear Waste Disposal (INE), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rainier Hermans
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science, Mol, Belgium
- Faculteit Industriële Ingenieurswetenschappen, UHasselt – KU Leuven, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Marc Verwerft
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science, Mol, Belgium
| | - Giuseppe Modolo
- Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung - Nukleare Entsorgung und Reaktorsicherheit- (IEK-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Cardinaels
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science, Mol, Belgium
- Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Verlinden B, Van Hecke K, Wilden A, Hupert M, Santiago-Schübel B, Egberink RJM, Verboom W, Kowalski PM, Modolo G, Verwerft M, Binnemans K, Cardinaels T. Gamma radiolytic stability of the novel modified diglycolamide 2,2'-oxybis( N, N-didecylpropanamide) (mTDDGA) for grouped actinide extraction. RSC Adv 2022; 12:12416-12426. [PMID: 35480374 PMCID: PMC9036757 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra08761d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel aims at improving resource efficiency and reducing its radiotoxicity and heat production in the long term. The necessary separation of certain metal ions from the spent fuel solutions can be achieved using different solvent extraction processes. For the scenario of the EURO-GANEX process, the use of the new, modified diglycolamide 2,2′-oxybis(N,N-didecylpropanamide) (mTDDGA) was recently proposed to simplify the current solvent composition and reduce extraction of fission products. Before further developing the process based on this new ligand, its stability under ionizing radiation conditions needs to be studied. For this reason, gamma irradiation experiments were conducted followed by analyses with high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS). The determined degradation rate of mTDDGA was found to be lower than that of the reference molecule N,N,N′,N′-tetra-n-octyl-diglycolamide (TODGA). Many identified degradation compounds of both molecules are analogues showing the same bond breaking, although also unreported de-methylation, double/triple de-alkylation and n-dodecane addition products were observed. The radiolysis behavior of a new diglycolamide for solvent extraction of actinides and lanthanides was studied. The observed degradation rate was lower than for the reference molecule and 22 degradation compounds were identified.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart Verlinden
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science Boeretang 200 2400 Mol Belgium .,Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan 200F, P.O. Box 2404 3001 Leuven Belgium.,JARA Energy, Center for Simulation and Data Science (CSD) Jülich Germany
| | - Karen Van Hecke
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science Boeretang 200 2400 Mol Belgium
| | - Andreas Wilden
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung - Nukleare Entsorgung und Reaktorsicherheit (IEK-6) 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Michelle Hupert
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Zentralinstitut für Engineering, Elektronik und Analytik (ZEA-3) 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Beatrix Santiago-Schübel
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Zentralinstitut für Engineering, Elektronik und Analytik (ZEA-3) 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Richard J M Egberink
- Department of Molecules & Materials, Mesa+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede The Netherlands
| | - Willem Verboom
- Department of Molecules & Materials, Mesa+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede The Netherlands
| | - Piotr M Kowalski
- JARA Energy, Center for Simulation and Data Science (CSD) Jülich Germany.,Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute of Energy and Climate Research: Theory and Computation of Energy Materials (IEK-13) 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Giuseppe Modolo
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung - Nukleare Entsorgung und Reaktorsicherheit (IEK-6) 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Marc Verwerft
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science Boeretang 200 2400 Mol Belgium
| | - Koen Binnemans
- Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan 200F, P.O. Box 2404 3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - Thomas Cardinaels
- Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Institute for Nuclear Materials Science Boeretang 200 2400 Mol Belgium .,Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan 200F, P.O. Box 2404 3001 Leuven Belgium
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Celis Barros C, Pilgrim CD, Cook AR, Mezyk SP, Grimes TS, Horne GP. Influence of uranyl complexation on the reaction kinetics of the dodecane radical cation with used nuclear fuel extraction ligands (TBP, DEHBA, and DEHiBA). Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:24589-24597. [PMID: 34710211 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp03797h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Specialized extractant ligands - such as tri-butyl phosphate (TBP), N,N-di-(2-ethylhexyl)butyramide (DEHBA), and N,N-di-2-ethylhexylisobutryamide (DEHiBA) - have been developed for the recovery of uranium from used nuclear fuel by reprocessing solvent extraction technologies. These ligands must function in the presence of an intense multi-component radiation field, and thus it is critical that their radiolytic behaviour be thoroughly evaluated. This is especially true for their metal complexes, where there is negligible information on the influence of complexation on radiolytic reactivity, despite the prevalence of metal complexes in used nuclear fuel reprocessing solvent systems. Here we present a kinetic investigation into the effect of uranyl (UO22+) complexation on the reaction kinetics of the dodecane radical cation (RH˙+) with TBP, DEHBA, and DEHiBA. Complexation had negligible effect on the reaction of RH˙+ with TBP, for which a second-order rate coefficient (k) of (1.3 ± 0.1) × 1010 M-1 s-1 was measured. For DEHBA and DEHiBA, UO22+ complexation afforded an increase in their respective rate coefficients: k(RH˙+ + [UO2(NO3)2(DEHBA)2]) = (2.5 ± 0.1) × 1010 M-1 s-1 and k(RH˙+ + [UO2(NO3)2(DEHiBA)2]) = (1.6 ± 0.1) × 1010 M-1 s-1. This enhancement with complexation is indicative of an alternative RH˙+ reaction pathway, which is more readily accessible for [UO2(NO3)2(DEHBA)2] as it exhibited a much larger kinetic enhancement than [UO2(NO3)2(DEHiBA)2], 2.6× vs. 1.4×, respectively. Complementary quantum mechanical calculations suggests that the difference in reaction kinetic enhancement between TBP and DEHBA/DEHiBA is attributed to a combination of reaction pathway (electron/hole transfer vs. proton transfer) energetics and electron density distribution, wherein attendant nitrate counter anions effectively 'shield' TBP from RH˙+ electron transfer processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Celis Barros
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA.
| | - Corey D Pilgrim
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1625, Idaho Falls, ID, 83415, USA.
| | - Andrew R Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York, 11973, USA
| | - Stephen P Mezyk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Boulevard, Long Beach, California, 90840-9507, USA
| | - Travis S Grimes
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1625, Idaho Falls, ID, 83415, USA.
| | - Gregory P Horne
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1625, Idaho Falls, ID, 83415, USA.
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A review of the alpha radiolysis of extractants for actinide lanthanide separation in spent nuclear fuel reprocessing. RADIOCHIM ACTA 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/ract-2021-1009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Radiation stability is one of the key properties to enable the efficient use of extractants in spent nuclear fuel with high radioactivity. The last several decades have witnessed a rapid progress in the radiation chemistry of extractants. A variety of studies and reviews pertinent to the radiation stability of extractants have been published. However, a thorough summary for the alpha radiolysis results of extractants is not available. In this review, we survey the development of alpha radiolysis of extractants for actinide lanthanide separation and compare their radiolysis behaviors induced by alpha particles and gamma rays. The discussion of alpha radiolysis of extractants is divided into three parts according to the functional groups of extractants (i.e., phosphine oxide, amide and bis-triazinyl bipyridines). Given the importance of radiation source to carry out alpha irradiation experiment, we first give a brief introduction to three practicable alpha radiation sources including alpha emitting isotopes, helium ion beam and reactor. We hope this review will provide useful information and unleash a broad palette of opportunities for researchers interested in radiation chemistry.
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Toigawa T, Peterman DR, Meeker DS, Grimes TS, Zalupski PR, Mezyk SP, Cook AR, Yamashita S, Kumagai Y, Matsumura T, Horne GP. Radiation-induced effects on the extraction properties of hexa- n-octylnitrilo-triacetamide (HONTA) complexes of americium and europium. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:1343-1351. [PMID: 33367347 DOI: 10.1039/d0cp05720g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The candidate An(iii)/Ln(iii) separation ligand hexa-n-octylnitrilo-triacetamide (HONTA) was irradiated under envisioned SELECT (Solvent Extraction from Liquid waste using Extractants of CHON-type for Transmutation) process conditions (n-dodecane/0.1 M HNO3) using a solvent test loop in conjunction with cobalt-60 gamma irradiation. The extent of HONTA radiolysis and complementary degradation product formation was quantified by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Further, the impact of HONTA radiolysis on process performance was evaluated by measuring the change in 243Am and 154Eu distribution ratios as a function of absorbed gamma dose. HONTA was found to decay exponentially with increasing dose, affording a dose coefficient of d = (4.48 ± 0.19) × 10-3 kGy-1. Multiple degradation products were detected by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS with dioctylamine being the dominant quantifiable species. Both 243Am and 154Eu distribution ratios exhibited an induction period of ∼70 kGy for extraction (0.1 M HNO3) and back-extraction (4.0 M HNO3) conditions, after which both values decreased with absorbed dose. The decrease in distribution ratios was attributed to a combination of the destruction of HONTA and ingrowth of dioctylamine, which is capable of interfering in metal ion complexation. The loss of HONTA with absorbed gamma dose was predominantly attributed to its reaction with the n-dodecane radical cation (R˙+). These R˙+ reaction kinetics were measured for HONTA and its 241Am and 154Eu complexes using picosecond pulsed electron radiolysis techniques. All three second-order rate coefficients (k) were essentially diffusion limited in n-dodecane indicating a significant reaction pathway: k(HONTA + R˙+) = (7.6 ± 0.8) × 109 M-1 s-1, k(Am(HONTA)2 + R˙+) = (7.1 ± 0.7) × 1010 M-1 s-1, and k(Eu(HONTA)2 + R˙+) = (9.5 ± 0.5) × 1010 M-1 s-1. HONTA-metal ion complexation afforded an order-of-magnitude increase in rate coefficient. Nanosecond time-resolved measurements showed that both direct and indirect HONTA radiolysis yielded the short-lived (<100 ns) HONTA radical cation and a second long-lived (μs) species identified as the HONTA triplet excited state. The latter was confirmed by a series of oxygen quenching picosecond pulsed electron measurements, affording a quenching rate coefficient of k(3[HONTA]* + O2) = 2.2 × 108 M-1 s-1. Overall, both the HONTA radical cation and triplet excited state are important precursors to the suite of measured HONTA degradation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Toigawa
- Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan.
| | - Dean R Peterman
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 N. Freemont Ave., Idaho Falls, 83415, USA.
| | - David S Meeker
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 N. Freemont Ave., Idaho Falls, 83415, USA.
| | - Travis S Grimes
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 N. Freemont Ave., Idaho Falls, 83415, USA.
| | - Peter R Zalupski
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 N. Freemont Ave., Idaho Falls, 83415, USA.
| | - Stephen P Mezyk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Boulevard, Long Beach, California 90840-9507, USA
| | - Andrew R Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, USA
| | - Shinichi Yamashita
- University of Tokyo, Nuclear Professional School, School of Engineering, 2-22 Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1188, Japan
| | - Yuta Kumagai
- Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan.
| | - Tatsuro Matsumura
- Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan.
| | - Gregory P Horne
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 N. Freemont Ave., Idaho Falls, 83415, USA.
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Dosimetry and methodology of gamma irradiation for degradation studies on solvent extraction systems. RADIOCHIM ACTA 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/ract-2020-0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The recycling of minor actinides from dissolved nuclear fuels by hydrometallurgical separation is one challenging strategy for the management of spent fuel. These future separation processes will likely be based on solvent extraction processes in which an organic solvent system (extractant and diluent) will be contacted with highly radioactive aqueous solutions. To establish a separation between different elements in spent nuclear fuel, many extractants have been studied in the past. A particular example is N,N,N′,N′-tetraoctyl diglycolamide (TODGA), which co-extracts lanthanides and actinides from nitric acid solutions into an organic phase (e.g. TODGA in n-dodecane). The radiolytic stability of these extractants is crucial, since they will absorb high doses of ionizing radiation during their usage. Worldwide, different gamma irradiation facilities are employed to expose extractants to ionizing radiation and gain insight in their radiation stability. The facilities differ in many ways, such as their environment (pool-type or dry), configuration and gamma sources (often 60Co or spent nuclear fuel). In this paper, a dosimetric assessment is made using different dosimeter systems in a pool-type irradiation facility, which has the advantage to be flexible in its arrangement of 60Co sources. It is shown that Red Perspex dosimeters can be used to accurately characterize this high dose rate gamma irradiation field (approx. 13.6 kGy h−1), after comparison with alanine, Fricke and ceric-cerous dosimetry in a lower dose rate gamma irradiation field (approx. 0.5 kGy h−1). A final validation of the whole chain of techniques is obtained by reproduction of the dose constants for TODGA in n-dodecane.
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Horne GP, Zarzana CA, Rae C, Cook AR, Mezyk SP, Zalupski PR, Wilden A, Mincher BJ. Does addition of 1-octanol as a phase modifier provide radical scavenging radioprotection for N,N,N′,N′-tetraoctyldiglycolamide (TODGA)? Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:24978-24985. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cp04310a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The incorporation of 1-octanol as a phase modifier in TODGA solvent system formulations promotes TODGA radiolysis under organic-only conditions, and radioprotection under biphasic nitric acid conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory P. Horne
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research
- Idaho National Laboratory
- Idaho Falls
- USA
| | | | - Cathy Rae
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research
- Idaho National Laboratory
- Idaho Falls
- USA
| | - Andrew R. Cook
- Department of Chemistry
- Brookhaven National Laboratory
- New York
- USA
| | - Stephen P. Mezyk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- California State University Long Beach
- Long Beach California
- USA
| | - Peter R. Zalupski
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research
- Idaho National Laboratory
- Idaho Falls
- USA
| | - Andreas Wilden
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
- Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung -Nukleare Entsorgung und Reaktorsicherheit- (IEK-6)
- 52428 Jülich
- Germany
| | - Bruce J. Mincher
- Center for Radiation Chemistry Research
- Idaho National Laboratory
- Idaho Falls
- USA
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Mincher BJ. The effects of radiation chemistry on radiochemistry: when unpaired electrons defy great expectations. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10967-018-5728-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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