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Grizzi F, Bax C, Hegazi MAAA, Lotesoriere BJ, Zanoni M, Vota P, Hurle RF, Buffi NM, Lazzeri M, Tidu L, Capelli L, Taverna G. Early Detection of Prostate Cancer: The Role of Scent. CHEMOSENSORS 2023; 11:356. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors11070356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) represents the cause of the second highest number of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and its clinical presentation can range from slow-growing to rapidly spreading metastatic disease. As the characteristics of most cases of PCa remains incompletely understood, it is crucial to identify new biomarkers that can aid in early detection. Despite the prostate-specific antigen serum (PSA) levels, prostate biopsy, and imaging representing the actual gold-standard for diagnosing PCa, analyzing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has emerged as a promising new frontier. We and other authors have reported that highly trained dogs can recognize specific VOCs associated with PCa with high accuracy. However, using dogs in clinical practice has several limitations. To exploit the potential of VOCs, an electronic nose (eNose) that mimics the dog olfactory system and can potentially be used in clinical practice was designed. To explore the eNose as an alternative to dogs in diagnosing PCa, we conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of available studies. PRISMA guidelines were used for the identification, screening, eligibility, and selection process. We included six studies that employed trained dogs and found that the pooled diagnostic sensitivity was 0.87 (95% CI 0.86–0.89; I2, 98.6%), the diagnostic specificity was 0.83 (95% CI 0.80–0.85; I2, 98.1%), and the area under the summary receiver operating characteristic curve (sROC) was 0.64 (standard error, 0.25). We also analyzed five studies that used an eNose to diagnose PCa and found that the pooled diagnostic sensitivity was 0.84 (95% CI, 0.80–0.88; I2, 57.1%), the diagnostic specificity was 0.88 (95% CI, 0.84–0.91; I2, 66%), and the area under the sROC was 0.93 (standard error, 0.03). These pooled results suggest that while highly trained dogs have the potentiality to diagnose PCa, the ability is primarily related to olfactory physiology and training methodology. The adoption of advanced analytical techniques, such as eNose, poses a significant challenge in the field of clinical practice due to their growing effectiveness. Nevertheless, the presence of limitations and the requirement for meticulous study design continue to present challenges when employing eNoses for the diagnosis of PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy
| | - Carmen Bax
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Mohamed A. A. A. Hegazi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
| | - Beatrice Julia Lotesoriere
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Zanoni
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, 21100 Castellanza, Italy
| | - Paolo Vota
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, 21100 Castellanza, Italy
| | - Rodolfo Fausto Hurle
- Department of Urology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicolò Maria Buffi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy
- Department of Urology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Lazzeri
- Department of Urology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Tidu
- Italian Ministry of Defenses, “Vittorio Veneto” Division, 50136 Firenze, Italy
| | - Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, 21100 Castellanza, Italy
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Bax C, Prudenza S, Gaspari G, Capelli L, Grizzi F, Taverna G. Drift compensation on electronic nose data for non-invasive diagnosis of prostate cancer by urine analysis. iScience 2022; 25:103622. [PMID: 35024578 PMCID: PMC8725018 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnostic protocol for prostate cancer (KP) is affected by poor accuracy and high false-positive rate. The most promising innovative approach is based on urine analysis by electronic noses (ENs), highlighting a specific correlation between urine alteration and KP presence. Although EN could be exploited to develop non-invasive KP diagnostic tools, no study has already introduced EN into clinical practice, most probably because of drift issues that hinder EN scaling up from research objects to large-scale diagnostic devices. This study, proposing an EN for non-invasive KP detection, describes the data processing protocol applied to a urine headspace dataset acquired over 9 months, comprising 81 patients with KP and 41 controls, for compensating the drift. It proved effective in mitigating drift on 1-year-old sensors by restoring accuracy from 55% up to 80%, achieved by new sensors not subjected to drift. The model achieved, on double-blind validation, a balanced accuracy of 76.2% (CI95% 51.9–92.3). Urine odor alteration due to prostate cancer can be detected by electronic noses Sensors drift hinders electronic nose scaling up to large-scale diagnostic devices OSC mitigates drift on 1-year-old sensors, restoring accuracy from 55% up to 80%
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Bax
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Stefano Prudenza
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Giulia Gaspari
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.,Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini Hospital, Via Gerenzano, 2, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy.,Department of Urology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy
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3
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Gouzerh F, Bessière JM, Ujvari B, Thomas F, Dujon AM, Dormont L. Odors and cancer: Current status and future directions. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2021; 1877:188644. [PMID: 34737023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2021.188644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the world. Because tumors detected at early stages are easier to treat, the search for biomarkers-especially non-invasive ones-that allow early detection of malignancies remains a central goal to reduce cancer mortality. Cancer, like other pathologies, often alters body odors, and much has been done by scientists over the last few decades to assess the value of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as signatures of cancers. We present here a quantitative review of 208 studies carried out between 1984 and 2020 that explore VOCs as potential biomarkers of cancers. We analyzed the main findings of these studies, listing and classifying VOCs related to different cancer types while considering both sampling methods and analysis techniques. Considering this synthesis, we discuss several of the challenges and the most promising prospects of this research direction in the war against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flora Gouzerh
- CREEC/CANECEV (CREES), Montpellier, France; MIVEGEC, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France; CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.
| | - Jean-Marie Bessière
- Ecole Nationale de Chimie de Montpellier, Laboratoire de Chimie Appliquée, Montpellier, France
| | - Beata Ujvari
- Deakin University, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Waurn Ponds, Vic 3216, Australia
| | - Frédéric Thomas
- CREEC/CANECEV (CREES), Montpellier, France; MIVEGEC, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Antoine M Dujon
- CREEC/CANECEV (CREES), Montpellier, France; MIVEGEC, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France; Deakin University, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Waurn Ponds, Vic 3216, Australia
| | - Laurent Dormont
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
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Optimization of training and measurement protocol for eNose analysis of urine headspace aimed at prostate cancer diagnosis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20898. [PMID: 34686703 PMCID: PMC8536694 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00033-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
More than one million new cases of prostate cancer (PCa) were reported worldwide in 2020, and a significant increase of PCa incidence up to 2040 is estimated. Despite potential treatability in early stages, PCa diagnosis is challenging because of late symptoms' onset and limits of current screening procedures. It has been now accepted that cell transformation leads to release of volatile organic compounds in biologic fluids, including urine. Thus, several studies proposed the possibility to develop new diagnostic tools based on urine analysis. Among these, electronic noses (eNoses) represent one of the most promising devices, because of their potential to provide a non-invasive diagnosis. Here we describe the approach aimed at defining the experimental protocol for eNose application for PCa diagnosis. Our research investigates effects of sample preparation and analysis on eNose responses and repeatability. The dependence of eNose diagnostic performance on urine portion analysed, techniques involved for extracting urine volatiles and conditioning temperature were analysed. 192 subjects (132 PCa patients and 60 controls) were involved. The developed experimental protocol has resulted in accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of 83% (CI95% 77-89), 82% (CI95% 73-88) and 87% (CI95% 75-94), respectively. Our findings define eNoses as valuable diagnostic tool allowing rapid and non-invasive PCa diagnosis.
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Deev V, Solovieva S, Andreev E, Protoshchak V, Karpushchenko E, Sleptsov A, Kartsova L, Bessonova E, Legin A, Kirsanov D. Prostate cancer screening using chemometric processing of GC-MS profiles obtained in the headspace above urine samples. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1155:122298. [PMID: 32771969 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of screening methods for various types of cancer is of utmost importance as the early diagnostics of these diseases significantly increases the chances for patient's successful medical treatment and recovery. In this study we have developed the procedure for chromatographic profiling of urine samples based on solid-phase microextraction and GC-MS. 50 urine samples (20 from the patients with biopsy conformed prostate cancer and 30 from control group) were studied in the optimized experimental conditions. Application of chemometric classification algorithms such as k-nearest neighbors and partial least squares-discriminant analysis allowed construction of predictive models yielding very high sensitivity, specificity and accuracy values all close to 100%. This gives a good promise for further validation of this approach with a broader sample sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Deev
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Svetlana Solovieva
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Evgeny Andreev
- Urology Clinic of S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, ul. Akademika Lebedeva 6, Saint-Petersburg 194044, Russia
| | - Vladimir Protoshchak
- Urology Clinic of S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, ul. Akademika Lebedeva 6, Saint-Petersburg 194044, Russia
| | - Evgeny Karpushchenko
- Urology Clinic of S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, ul. Akademika Lebedeva 6, Saint-Petersburg 194044, Russia
| | - Aleksander Sleptsov
- Urology Clinic of S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, ul. Akademika Lebedeva 6, Saint-Petersburg 194044, Russia
| | - Liudmila Kartsova
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Elena Bessonova
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Andrey Legin
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Dmitry Kirsanov
- Institute of Chemistry, Saint-Petersburg State University, Peterhof, Universitetsky Prospect, 26, Saint-Petersburg 198504, Russia.
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Baldini C, Billeci L, Sansone F, Conte R, Domenici C, Tonacci A. Electronic Nose as a Novel Method for Diagnosing Cancer: A Systematic Review. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2020; 10:bios10080084. [PMID: 32722438 PMCID: PMC7459473 DOI: 10.3390/bios10080084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is fast becoming the most important cause of death worldwide, its mortality being mostly caused by late or wrong diagnosis. Novel strategies have been developed to identify early signs of cancer in a minimally obtrusive way, including the Electronic Nose (E-Nose) technology, user-friendly, cost- and time-saving alternative to classical approaches. This systematic review, conducted under the PRISMA guidelines, identified 60 articles directly dealing with the E-Nose application in cancer research published up to 31 January 2020. Among these works, the vast majority reported successful E-Nose use for diagnosing Lung Cancer, showing promising results especially when employing the Aeonose tool, discriminating subjects with Lung Cancer from controls in more than 80% of individuals, in most studies. In order to tailor the main limitations of the proposed approach, including the application of the protocol to advanced stage of cancer, sample heterogeneity and massive confounders, future studies should be conducted on early stage patients, and on larger cohorts, as to better characterize the specific breathprint associated with the various subtypes of cancer. This would ultimately lead to a better and faster diagnosis and to earlier treatment, possibly reducing the burden associated to such conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Baldini
- School of Engineering, University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino 1, 56122 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Lucia Billeci
- Institute of Clinical Physiology—National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (L.B.); (F.S.); (R.C.); (C.D.)
| | - Francesco Sansone
- Institute of Clinical Physiology—National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (L.B.); (F.S.); (R.C.); (C.D.)
| | - Raffaele Conte
- Institute of Clinical Physiology—National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (L.B.); (F.S.); (R.C.); (C.D.)
| | - Claudio Domenici
- Institute of Clinical Physiology—National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (L.B.); (F.S.); (R.C.); (C.D.)
| | - Alessandro Tonacci
- Institute of Clinical Physiology—National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (L.B.); (F.S.); (R.C.); (C.D.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Approaches to urinary detection of prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2019; 22:362-381. [PMID: 30655600 PMCID: PMC6640078 DOI: 10.1038/s41391-019-0127-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Background: Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in American men that ranges from low risk states amenable to active surveillance to high risk states that can be lethal especially if untreated. There is a critical need to develop relatively non-invasive and clinically useful methods for screening, detection, prognosis, disease monitoring, and prediction of treatment efficacy. In this review, we focus on important advances as well as future efforts needed to drive clinical innovation in this area of urine biomarker research for prostate cancer detection and prognostication. Methods: We provide a review of current literature on urinary biomarkers for prostate cancer. We evaluate the strengths and limitations of a variety of approaches that vary in sampling strategies and targets measured; discuss reported urine tests for prostate cancer with respect to their technical, analytical, and clinical parameters; and provide our perspectives on critical considerations in approaches to developing a urine-based test for prostate cancer. Results: There has been an extensive history of exploring urine as a source of biomarkers for prostate cancer that has resulted in a variety of urine tests that are in current clinical use. Importantly, at least three tests have demonstrated high sensitivity (~90%) and negative predictive value (~95%) for clinically significant tumors; however, there has not been widespread adoption of these tests. Conclusions: Conceptual and methodological advances in the field will help to drive the development of novel urinary tests that in turn may lead to a shift in the clinical paradigm for prostate cancer diagnosis and management.
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Broza YY, Vishinkin R, Barash O, Nakhleh MK, Haick H. Synergy between nanomaterials and volatile organic compounds for non-invasive medical evaluation. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:4781-4859. [PMID: 29888356 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00317c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This article is an overview of the present and ongoing developments in the field of nanomaterial-based sensors for enabling fast, relatively inexpensive and minimally (or non-) invasive diagnostics of health conditions with follow-up by detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) excreted from one or combination of human body fluids and tissues (e.g., blood, urine, breath, skin). Part of the review provides a didactic examination of the concepts and approaches related to emerging sensing materials and transduction techniques linked with the VOC-based non-invasive medical evaluations. We also present and discuss diverse characteristics of these innovative sensors, such as their mode of operation, sensitivity, selectivity and response time, as well as the major approaches proposed for enhancing their ability as hybrid sensors to afford multidimensional sensing and information-based sensing. The other parts of the review give an updated compilation of the past and currently available VOC-based sensors for disease diagnostics. This compilation summarizes all VOCs identified in relation to sickness and sampling origin that links these data with advanced nanomaterial-based sensing technologies. Both strength and pitfalls are discussed and criticized, particularly from the perspective of the information and communication era. Further ideas regarding improvement of sensors, sensor arrays, sensing devices and the proposed workflow are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Y Broza
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel.
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Bax C, Taverna G, Eusebio L, Sironi S, Grizzi F, Guazzoni G, Capelli L. Innovative Diagnostic Methods for Early Prostate Cancer Detection through Urine Analysis: A Review. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10040123. [PMID: 29670060 PMCID: PMC5923378 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10040123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death among men. It is an asymptomatic and slow growing tumour, which starts occurring in young men, but can be detected only around the age of 40–50. Although its long latency period and potential curability make prostate cancer a perfect candidate for screening programs, the current procedure lacks in specificity. Researchers are rising to the challenge of developing innovative tools able of detecting the disease during its early stage that is the most curable. In recent years, the interest in characterisation of biological fluids aimed at the identification of tumour-specific compounds has increased significantly, since cell neoplastic transformation causes metabolic alterations leading to volatile organic compounds release. In the scientific literature, different approaches have been proposed. Many studies focus on the identification of a cancer-characteristic “odour fingerprint” emanated from biological samples through the application of sensorial or senso-instrumental analyses, others suggest a chemical characterisation of biological fluids with the aim of identifying prostate cancer (PCa)-specific biomarkers. This paper focuses on the review of literary studies in the field of prostate cancer diagnosis, in order to provide an overview of innovative methods based on the analysis of urine, thereby comparing them with the traditional diagnostic procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Bax
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Urology, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Lidia Eusebio
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Selena Sironi
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Immunology and Inflammation, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Guazzoni
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Department of Urology, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy.
| | - Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Capelli L, Taverna G, Bellini A, Eusebio L, Buffi N, Lazzeri M, Guazzoni G, Bozzini G, Seveso M, Mandressi A, Tidu L, Grizzi F, Sardella P, Latorre G, Hurle R, Lughezzani G, Casale P, Meregali S, Sironi S. Application and Uses of Electronic Noses for Clinical Diagnosis on Urine Samples: A Review. SENSORS 2016; 16:s16101708. [PMID: 27754437 PMCID: PMC5087496 DOI: 10.3390/s16101708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The electronic nose is able to provide useful information through the analysis of the volatile organic compounds in body fluids, such as exhaled breath, urine and blood. This paper focuses on the review of electronic nose studies and applications in the specific field of medical diagnostics based on the analysis of the gaseous headspace of human urine, in order to provide a broad overview of the state of the art and thus enhance future developments in this field. The research in this field is rather recent and still in progress, and there are several aspects that need to be investigated more into depth, not only to develop and improve specific electronic noses for different diseases, but also with the aim to discover and analyse the connections between specific diseases and the body fluids odour. Further research is needed to improve the results obtained up to now; the development of new sensors and data processing methods should lead to greater diagnostic accuracy thus making the electronic nose an effective tool for early detection of different kinds of diseases, ranging from infections to tumours or exposure to toxic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Capelli
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Alessia Bellini
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Lidia Eusebio
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
| | - Niccolò Buffi
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Massimo Lazzeri
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Guazzoni
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Bozzini
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Mauro Seveso
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Alberto Mandressi
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo Tidu
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Paolo Sardella
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Latorre
- Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy.
| | - Rodolfo Hurle
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Lughezzani
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Paolo Casale
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy.
| | - Sara Meregali
- Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy.
| | - Selena Sironi
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy.
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