1
|
Nikanfar S, Leonel ECR, Damdimopoulou P, Flaws JA, Amorim CA. Effects of phthalate exposure on human ovarian extracellular matrix composition: insights from a 3D spheroid model. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2025; 279:121797. [PMID: 40345415 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.121797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2025] [Revised: 05/02/2025] [Accepted: 05/05/2025] [Indexed: 05/11/2025]
Abstract
Phthalates, widely used as plasticizers in consumer products, have become a significant public health concern due to their toxic effects on reproductive and endocrine systems. However, the specific mechanisms by which phthalates affect ovarian function remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we employed 3D spheroids derived from human ovarian stromal cells, which mimic the ovarian tissue. Since remodeling the ovarian extracellular matrix (ECM) is centrally involved in follicle growth, ovulation, and ovarian aging, we decided to study the impact of environmentally relevant phthalate mixtures (PM) on ECM components. Spheroids were generated from both reproductive-aged and menopausal ovarian tissues, then treated with PM for four days. Collagen deposition was assessed using picrosirius red staining, while immunofluorescence was used to evaluate the proliferation and deposition of collagen type VI, elastin, fibrillin-1, and elastin microfibril interfacer 1 (EMILIN-1). Our results revealed that PM exposure significantly increased collagen deposition (p < 0.0001) in spheroids from reproductive-aged ovaries, while reducing collagen VI levels (p < 0.05), potentially compromising the structural and functional integrity of the ovarian ECM. In contrast, spheroids from menopausal ovaries exhibited a decrease in EMILIN-1 (p < 0.05) and fibrillin-1 (p < 0.001), both crucial for maintaining tissue elasticity. These findings underscore the detrimental effects of phthalates on ovarian ECM across different age groups, with a particular emphasis on ECM elastisity. Additionally, this study highlights the utility of 3D spheroids as a reliable in vitro model for mechanistic research, drug screening and toxicology testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saba Nikanfar
- Pôle de Recherche en Physiopathologie de la Reproduction, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ellen C R Leonel
- Animal Molecular and Cellular Biology Group, Louvain Institute of Biomolecular Science and Technology, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Pauliina Damdimopoulou
- Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States
| | - Christiani A Amorim
- Pôle de Recherche en Physiopathologie de la Reproduction, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Arshee MR, Shukla R, Li J, Doha U, Bagchi IC, Ziv-Gal A, Wagoner Johnson AJ. Impact of paraben on uterine collagen: An integrated and targeted Correlative approach using second harmonic generation microscopy, nanoindentation, and atomic force microscopy. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2025; 165:106926. [PMID: 39946870 PMCID: PMC11893236 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2025.106926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2024] [Revised: 01/19/2025] [Accepted: 01/31/2025] [Indexed: 03/12/2025]
Abstract
This study investigates the structural and mechanical changes in uterine collagen following exposure to propylparaben (PP) using a combined methodology of Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) microscopy, Nanoindentation (NI), and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). SHG analysis identified significant disorganization in collagen fibril orientation in the circumferential layer and heterogeneous distribution of regions with elevated forward to backward ratios (F/B) across all uterine layers due to PP exposure. High F/B can indicate multiple potential fibril-level changes like thickened fibrils, higher crosslinking, fibril disorganization - changes not fully decipherable by SHG alone. Recognizing this limitation, the study employs NI and AFM to provide complementary mechanical and nanoscale insights. NI revealed increased indentation modulus in the exposed uteri, suggesting increased stiffness. Co-registration of the indentation response with SHG parameters uncovered that elevated F/B regions show enhanced mechanical stiffness, suggesting a fibrotic transformation following chronic PP exposure. AFM was specifically performed on regions identified by SHG as having low or high F/B, providing the necessary nanoscale resolution to elucidate the structural changes in fibrils that are likely responsible for the observed alterations. AFM confirmed the presence of disordered and entangled collagen fibrils in the circumferential layer in all regions and an increase in fibril diameter in the high F/B regions in the PP-exposed uteri. Together, these findings demonstrate significant alterations in collagen architecture due to PP exposure, revealing disruptions at both the fiber and fibril levels and highlighting the potential for broader applications of the multi-scale, multi-modal approach in collagenous tissue studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahmuda R Arshee
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820, USA
| | - Ritwik Shukla
- Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | - Jie Li
- Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | - Umnia Doha
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Indrani C Bagchi
- Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA; Biomedical and Translational Sciences, Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820, USA; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; CZ Biohub Chicago, LLC, Chicago, IL, 60642, USA
| | - Ayelet Ziv-Gal
- Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; CZ Biohub Chicago, LLC, Chicago, IL, 60642, USA
| | - Amy J Wagoner Johnson
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820, USA; Biomedical and Translational Sciences, Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820, USA; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; CZ Biohub Chicago, LLC, Chicago, IL, 60642, USA; Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Yang S, Yang S, Luo A. Phthalates and uterine disorders. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2025; 40:97-114. [PMID: 38452364 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2023-0159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Humans are ubiquitously exposed to environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals such as phthalates. Phthalates can migrate out of products and enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal application, can have potential estrogenic/antiestrogenic and/or androgenic/antiandrogenic activity, and are involved in many diseases. As a female reproductive organ that is regulated by hormones such as estrogen, progesterone and androgen, the uterus can develop several disorders such as leiomyoma, endometriosis and abnormal bleeding. In this review, we summarize the hormone-like activities of phthalates, in vitro studies of endometrial cells exposed to phthalates, epigenetic modifications in the uterus induced by phthalate exposure, and associations between phthalate exposure and uterine disorders such as leiomyoma and endometriosis. Moreover, we also discuss the current research gaps in understanding the relationship between phthalate exposure and uterine disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuhong Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10487 National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuhao Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10487 National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Aiyue Luo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10487 National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Santacruz-Márquez R, Safar AM, Laws MJ, Fletcher EJ, Meling DD, Nowak RA, Raetzman LT, Flaws JA. Dietary exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate for 6 months alters markers of female reproductive aging in mice†. Biol Reprod 2025; 112:191-202. [PMID: 39520286 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioae164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2024] [Revised: 11/01/2024] [Accepted: 11/08/2024] [Indexed: 11/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The female reproductive system ages before any other physiological system, making it a sensitive indicator of aging. Early reproductive aging is associated with the early onset of infertility and an increased risk of several diseases. During aging, systemic and reproductive oxidative stress and inflammation levels increase through inflammasome activation, leading to ovarian follicle loss. Other markers of reproductive aging include increased fibrosis and shortening of telomeres in ovarian cells. The factors that accelerate reproductive aging are unclear, but likely involve exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals such as phthalates. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used phthalate and humans are exposed to it daily. Several studies show that DEHP induces reproductive toxicity by affecting estrous cyclicity, follicle numbers, and hormone levels. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying DEHP-induced early onset of reproductive aging. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that dietary exposure to DEHP induces early reproductive aging by affecting inflammation, fibrosis, and the expression of telomere regulators and antioxidant enzymes. Adult CD-1 female mice were exposed to vehicle (corn oil) or DEHP (0.5, 1.5, or 1500 ppm) via the chow for 6 months. Exposure to DEHP increased the expression of antioxidant enzymes and Caspase 3, increased expression of telomere-associated genes, and increased fibrosis levels in the ovary. In addition, DEHP exposure for 6 months altered ovarian and systemic inflammatory status. Collectively, our novel data suggest that 6-month dietary exposure to DEHP may accelerate reproductive aging by affecting several reproductive aging markers in female mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramsés Santacruz-Márquez
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Adira M Safar
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Mary J Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Endia J Fletcher
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Daryl D Meling
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Romana A Nowak
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Lori T Raetzman
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shukla R, Kannan A, Laws MJ, Johnson AW, Flaws JA, Bagchi MK, Bagchi IC. Long-term dietary exposure to a mixture of phthalates enhances estrogen and beta-catenin signaling pathways, leading to endometrial hyperplasia in mice. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.09.16.613339. [PMID: 39345621 PMCID: PMC11429868 DOI: 10.1101/2024.09.16.613339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/01/2024]
Abstract
Phthalates, synthetic chemicals widely utilized as plasticizers and stabilizers in various consumer products, present a significant concern due to their persistent presence in daily human life. While past research predominantly focused on individual phthalates, real-life human exposure typically encompasses complex mixtures of these compounds. The cumulative effects of prolonged exposure to phthalate mixtures on uterine health remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted studies utilizing adult female mice exposed to a phthalate mixture for 6 and 12 months through ad libitum chow consumption. We previously reported that continuous exposure to this phthalate mixture for 6 months led to uterine fibrosis. In this study, we show that the exposure, when continued beyond 6 months to 1 year, caused fibrotic uteri to display hyperplasia with a significant increase in gland to stroma ratio. Endometrial hyperplasia is commonly caused by unopposed estrogen action, which promotes increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and proliferation of the endometrial epithelial cells. Indeed, RNA sequencing analysis revealed a marked upregulation of several estrogen-regulated genes, Wnt ligands that are involved in oncogenic pathways, as well as chemokines, in phthalate-exposed uterine tissues. Consequently, the exposed uteri exhibited increased proliferation of endometrial epithelial cells, and a heightened inflammatory response indicated by extensive homing of macrophages. Further studies revealed a marked enhancement of the Wnt/β-Catenin signaling pathway, potentially contributing to the development of endometrial hyperplasia. Collectively, this study underscores the significance of understanding the exposure to environmental factors in the pathogenesis of endometrial disorders.
Collapse
|