Self-perception, self-regulation and metacognition in adolescents with intellectual disability

Social and Emotional Competencies of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and/or Intellectual Disability

Children with ASD and children with ID face numerous challenges in social and emotional functioning. The aim of this study is to explore differences in social and emotional competencies between children with ASD, children with ID and children with comorbid ASD/ID. Methods: Parents (N = 177) assessed the social and emotional competencies of elementary school-aged children with ASD (N = 50), children with ID (N = 84), and children with comorbid ASD/ID (N = 43) using the Devereux Student Strengths Assessment (DESSA). DESSA measures 8 key social and emotional competencies. In our study, no differences in social and emotional competencies were found between children with ASD and children with ID. Children with comorbid ASD/ID did not differ from children with ASD, but compared to children with ID, parents rated their self-awareness, social awareness, relationship skills, and optimistic thinking as significantly lower. The results were discussed considering the type of school attended by the children, the level of intellectual disability of children with ID, and the complexity of functioning of children with ASD. All three groups of children require tailored interventions for social and emotional learning to support their functioning in daily activities at home, at school and in peer groups.

The effects of self-directed learning based on video prompting in improving 27 daily living skills for adolescents with mild intellectual disability in China

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Students with intellectual disability often face challenges in mastering daily living skills. Existing intervention strategies for these skills typically require support from instructors, which limits the autonomy and independence of these students. Consequently, this study aims to develop a self-directed learning approach based on video prompting to enhance the daily living skills of students with mild intellectual disability.

METHOD

The research employed a multiple probe across behaviors design to evaluate the effectiveness of this approach among three adolescents with mild intellectual disability in China, focusing on 27 daily living skills across three categories: cooking, cleaning, and household appliance usage. Additionally, six skills were randomly selected to assess the generalization effects of acquired skills to real-life scenarios.

RESULTS

All three participants acquired 27 skills within 27 intervention sessions, achieving average task completion accuracy of 98 %, 94 %, and 96 % across three categories of skills. Participants also demonstrated improved self-correction accuracy during the self-directed learning process. Furthermore, they successfully generalized all selected skills to real-life family scenarios. These results support the high efficiency and effectiveness of the self-directed learning approach.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS

These preliminary findings underscore the potential of self-directed learning in empowering individuals with mild intellectual disability toward greater independence and lifelong skill acquisition. Future research should explore the broader applicability of this learning approach.

Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) Reactivity and Developmental Delay in the Preschool Years

Children with developmental delay are more likely than their typically developing peers to experience emotional dysregulation. Given that there is evidence that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reactivity indexes emotion regulation, which in turn tracks motor, language, and cognitive development across the early years, RSA reactivity should develop accordingly in that period and differ by developmental status. The present study therefore compared those with and without developmental delay (across adaptive, personal-social, and motor domains) on the growth in RSA reactivity in the preschool years (ages 3-5 years) across three time points. Results showed that those with global developmental delay exhibited atypical RSA reactivity progression (e.g., excessive or insufficient vagal withdrawal) across the preschool years. Follow-up is needed to determine whether this pattern of RSA reactivity persists later in childhood.

Measuring empathy in youth and young adults with mild intellectual disabilities or borderline intelligence in residential care - The validation of an adapted basic empathy scale: The BES-MID

Youths with mild intellectual disability (MID) are assumed to show impaired cognitive and affective empathy. However, the use of linguistic and conceptual complex empathy measures set limits to the valid and reliable assessment of empathy in youth with MID or borderline intelligence (BI). The objective of the present study was to evaluate the validity and reliability of the adapted BES-MID as an instrument for assessing cognitive and affective empathy in youth and young adults (12-24years) with MID/BI. The current study was conducted in a sample of N = 146 youth and young adults with MID or BI Results from Confirmatory Factor Analyses confirm the two-factor structure of affective and cognitive empathy for the BES-MID. While the original BES cannot be used to assess empathy in youth and young adults with MID or borderline intelligence, the BES-MID showed satisfactory validity and reliability in youth and young adults with MID or borderline intelligence. Despite some limitations and the need for further research, the current study has resulted in a valid and reliable empathy scale (BES-MID) for assessing cognitive and empathic abilities in youth and young adults with MID or borderline intelligence, which is important for future empathy research in youth and young adults with MID or borderline intelligence.

Relationships Between Early Maladaptive Schemas and Emotional States in Individuals With Sexual Convictions

This study seeks to add to the existing knowledge and available literature on schema therapy elements in forensic inpatient samples. Early maladaptive schemas and emotional states were assessed in Dutch individuals with sexual convictions and compared to individuals with nonsexual violent convictions. Self-ratings of the Young Schema Questionnaire and the Schema Mode Inventory of 95 patients with either convictions for child sexual abuse (N = 30), sexual violence against adults (N = 34), and nonsexual violent convictions (N = 31) were examined using one-way multivariate ANOVAs. Regardless of victim type, forensic patients convicted for sexual offending, and patients with convictions for nonsexual violent offending, seem to make equal use of specific maladaptive cognitive schemas and schema modes during mandated inpatient care. Other studies have shown that people with sexual offense histories are typically characterized by insecure attachment, overvigilance towards women, or a child-like self-concept. Our study indicates that forensic patient in Dutch mandated care may be qualitatively different from typical patients with sexual offense histories and that Dutch patients with violent or sexual offense histories are more similar than they are dissimilar.

Modeling the relationships among home literacy environment, reading interest, self-regulation, and reading ability of children with intellectual disabilities in China

Background

Understanding of reading skills of children with intellectual disabilities can help implement appropriate educational strategies. This study aimed to explore the relationship between home literacy environment and reading ability of children with intellectual disabilities and possible mediating roles of reading interest and self-regulation in this relationship.

Method

297 Chinese children with intellectual disabilities were surveyed for home literacy environment, reading interest, self-regulation and reading ability questionnaires. Data entry, correlation and structural equation modeling were performed using the Statistical Package for Social Science software package.

Results

Home literacy environment impacted reading ability of children with intellectual disabilities via mediation by reading interest and self-regulation.

Conclusions

These results revealed the influencing pathways of home literacy environment on reading ability of children with intellectual disabilities and ascertained the positive roles of reading interest and self-regulation in their reading development.

The effectiveness of schema therapy in offenders with intellectual disabilities: a case series design

BACKGROUND

In forensic settings, patients with intellectual disabilities are overrepresented. A relative novel treatment approach for this population is schema therapy. The goals of schema therapy for offenders with intellectual disabilities are to reduce maladaptive emotional states and to reinforce healthy emotional states and enhancing the patient's ability to ask for help. No studies are examining the effectiveness of this approach.

METHOD

We examined the effectiveness of Schema Therapy for offenders with intellectual disabilities (ST-ID) in terms of emotional states, psychological complaints, and violence risk in six participants.

RESULTS

Reliable change analyses showed significant improvements in emotional states and certain psychological complaints.

CONCLUSIONS

While many questions remain about the effectiveness of ST-ID, our study shows that offenders with ID can benefit from this psychological treatment.

Factor structure of the BRIEF-P teacher version in a sample of Bosnian preschool children with intellectual disability

Executive functions (EF) play a key role in child's development as they are necessary prerequisites for everyday functioning and later academic success. Much research has been directed at examining whether EF are unidimensional or multidimensional construct. In this study, we tested two theoretically driven models and one mathematically driven EF model based on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions - Preschool Edition (BRIEF-P). The sample for this study consisted of 102 children with intellectual disability (77 boys, 25 girls), aged 40-71 months (mean age- 62.1 months, SD- 7.6 months). Early childhood special education teachers completed the BRIEF-P Teacher Version. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to assess the validity of different EF models. The original BRIEF-P, with a second-order, three-factor model and one-factor model were not a good fit to the data. Mathematically driven one-factor model, with the addition of correlated errors between the scales of working memory and shift, and working memory and plan/organize was a good model fit. The current study indicates that EF differentiation begins to emerge at preschool age in children with intellectual disabilities. Understanding EF structure in children with intellectual disability will help create better intervention programs for this population.

Increased openness to external influences in adolescents with intellectual disability: Insights from an experimental study on social judgments

BACKGROUND

Making appropriate social judgments about one's peers helps avoid negative influences from peers, yet the cognitive and adaptive difficulties experienced by adolescents with an intellectual disability (ID) may create challenges in this regard.

PROCEDURE

This study used a computer-based task to investigate how adolescents with ID (n = 34, M = 14.89 years, SD = 1.38) and comparison groups of chronological age-matched adolescents without ID (n = 34, M = 14.68, SD = 1.16) and mental age-matched children (n = 34, M = 7.88, SD = .62) make social judgments of photos of adolescents, and the degree to which they are influenced by non-social and social cues in performing this task.

RESULTS

Analyses showed adolescents with ID made significantly more polarizing judgments and showed a positivity bias compared to adolescents without ID. This judgment pattern was similar to that of younger mental age-matched children. Adolescents with ID were also significantly more influenced by non-social cues and peer opinions than adolescents from the control group.

IMPLICATIONS

The results provide new perspectives for future research and support of adolescents with ID.

Association of General Cognitive Functions with Gaming Use in Young Adults: A Comparison among Excessive Gamers, Regular Gamers and Non-Gamers

This study aimed to examine the relationship of general cognitive function with gaming use, and to identify elements of intelligence predicting increased gaming use. In total, 160 young adults participated in this study. Two clinical groups (n = 97) were defined: excessive gaming users diagnosed with internet gaming disorder (IGD) (n = 64) and the high-risk users (n = 33). The control group (n = 63) was also divided into regular gamers (n = 14) and non-gamers (n = 49). Participants completed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV and self-reported questionnaires regarding IGD severity and gaming hours. The IGD group had significantly lower Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ), Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), and Processing Speed Index (PSI) scores, compared with regular gamers and non-gamers. The IGD group also exhibited lower Working Memory Index (WMI) scores, compared with non-gamers. The high-risk group demonstrated significantly lower PSI score, compared with non-gamers. Furthermore FSIQ, VCI, WMI, and PSI scores were significant predictors of gaming hours in the IGD group. For the high-risk group, FSIQ, WMI, and VCI scores were negatively associated with gaming hours. Our study demonstrates the need to address the importance of enhancing working memory and verbal ability, thus, preventing the development of gaming addiction among individuals at high-risk gamers.

Aquatic exercise for people with intellectual disabilities: findings from a systematic review

Background: There is a need for promoting exercise practice among people with intellectual disabilities (ID). Aquatic exercise (AE) could be a viable option in this regard. Objective: To identify and critically analyze the best available evidence concerning the effects of AE in the physical and mental health of people with ID. Methods: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and comparative studies was performed after searching within several databases up to March 2021. Results: A total of 4 RCTs and 3 comparative studies were found. Their methodological quality ranged from high to low. Aquatic interventions had positive effects on cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness and balance. Mixed effects were seen on parameters related to obesity and cognition. Scant information regarding feasibility and intervention fidelity was provided. In general, interventions details were not discussed in deep. Conclusion: Preliminary evidence shows that aquatic exercise can be prescribed to people with ID in order to improve their physical health. The impact of aquatic exercise on motor skills, cognitive function and mental health remains unclear. Further research on this topic should provide a detailed description of the interventions carried out, including information on the feasibility and intervention fidelity.

Emotion regulation and angry mood among adolescents with externalizing problems and intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cognitive behavior therapy targeting emotion regulation is found to be effective in decreasing externalizing problems, but little is known about the emotion regulation capacities of adolescents with externalizing problems and Mild Intellectual Disabilities or Borderline Intellectual Functioning (MID-BIF). Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare emotion (i.e., anger) regulation capacities, angry mood level and angry mood variability between two groups: adolescents with externalizing problems and MID-BIF and adolescents with externalizing problems and average intelligence (AIQ).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Participants in the MID-BIF (n = 42, M_age = 15.52, SD = 1.43) and AIQ (n = 39, M_age = 13.67, SD = 1.06) group completed questionnaires about emotion regulation difficulties, emotion regulation strategies, and angry mood.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Adolescents in the MID-BIF group reported fewer emotion regulation difficulties, fewer maladaptive regulation strategies, and lower levels of angry mood than adolescents in the AIQ group. No between-group differences in angry mood variability were found. Lastly, adolescents in the MID-BIF group reported to use more behavioral than cognitive regulation strategies.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These findings provide a starting point in understanding emotion regulation and angry mood of adolescents with externalizing problems and MID-BIF and show that it is important to consider differences between cognitive and behavioral regulation processes.

Robot-mediated therapy to reduce worrying in persons with visual and intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND

The study explored the use of a robot-mediated therapeutic intervention in persons with visual and intellectual disabilities.

METHOD

Three robot-mediated intervention sessions were developed to teach three coping skills for worrying. Effectiveness was examined using a multiple-baseline case study design (N = 7). Baseline, pre-intervention and post-intervention assessments included social validity, severity of worrying (PSWQ-C-NL), and observations by caregivers (SDQ). Short checklists on worrying were repeated throughout baseline and intervention stages. Transcripts of the sessions were analysed for participants' emotional openness.

RESULTS

Social validity was equally high before and after the intervention. The intervention did not impact the severity of worrying, although mentor caregivers reported a lower impact of personal difficulties for participants. We found no change in self-disclosure towards the robot over sessions.

CONCLUSIONS

The participants' positive responses warrant further exploration of using robot-mediated therapy for persons with visual and intellectual disabilities. Recommendations for additional adaptations are discussed.

Roles of the metacognition and emotional systems in a categorization task for adults with moderate and severe learning disabilities

This research aimed to evaluate the links between metacognitive experiences, emotional coping strategies and categorization in adults with severe and moderate intellectual disabilities. The participants consisted of 32 people between 23 and 70 years old and having severe and moderate intellectual disabilities were recruited in several institutions. Their metacognition and their coping strategies were assessed using questionnaires before and after a complex categorization task. Metacognitive experiences refer to awareness and feelings about a task. The results highlighted a link between the Feeling Of Familiarity (FOF), one of concept of metacognitive experience and categorization performances and between coping strategies and metacognitive experience. There was also a link between coping strategies and metacognitive experiences, more specifically emotional outbursts. Finally, self-criticism appeared to be a good predictor of part of the FOF prior to the task. Self criticism is the ability to people to consider he is partly responsible of a situation. In conclusion, the participants' poor performances could be explained by their inefficient coping strategies and metacognitive experiences. Our results highlight the necessity to coach adults with severe and moderate intellectual disabilities in metacognitive experiences and emotional coping strategies before, and after a cognitive task.

Cognitive abilities and life experience in everyday planning in adolescents with intellectual disabilities: Support for the difference model

BACKGROUND

The literature on planning ability in individuals with intellectual disability (ID) provides no clarity on whether their ability matches their mental age (MA) or not. Perhaps can planning experience explain the mixed results. The current study investigated to what extent cognitive abilities and life experience can explain everyday planning ability in individuals with ID and to what extent results from everyday planning tasks support the developmental or the difference model of ID.

METHOD

Planning tests, cognitive ability tasks and a self-rated life experience form were administered to 71 adolescents with ID and 62 children with a typical development matched on MA.

RESULTS

Adolescents with ID exhibited planning ability according to their MA. Regression analyses showed that the predictors of planning differed between the groups. The cognitive measures could predict planning in both groups, but life experience only contributed positively to planning in the MA group, whereas chronological age was negatively correlated with successful planning in the ID group.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The results support the difference model of ID. When matched on MA, the individuals with ID will solve the planning task in a qualitatively different manner. Additionally, the participants with ID could not utilise their life experience when solving the planning task, contrary to the MA group. Practitioners should be aware that individuals with ID might need more everyday planning training throughout adolescence. To support adolescents with ID, practitioners may focus on supporting the individual's cognitive abilities rather than relying on their prior knowledge.

Early childhood predictors of global competence in adolescence for youth with typical development or intellectual disability

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

We aimed to determine whether a second-order global competence latent factor could be identified as underlying relations between adolescent mental health, social skills, and academic functioning. A secondary aim was to test whether early childhood characteristics predict adolescent global competence. A final aim was to test differences in these models across youth with typical cognitive development (TD) or intellectual disability (ID).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Participants were 246 youth with TD (n = 148) or ID (n = 98), with assessments from early childhood (3, 4, 5 years) and adolescence (13, 15). These youths' parents and teachers provided measures. A Multiple Indicator, Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was tested using structural equation modeling, in which parenting, maternal depression, and emotional dysregulation in early childhood were entered as predictors of adolescent global competence.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

A second-order global competence factor emerged, and was predicted by early childhood variables. The final MIMIC model demonstrated excellent fit. Negative parenting in early childhood predicted lower adolescent global competence for both TD and ID youth. Maternal depression predicted adolescent global competence only for youth with ID, while emotion dysregulation predicted only for youth with TD.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Results have implications for longitudinal mechanisms of influence and early intervention targets for specific populations.

Theory of mind development in school environment: A case of children with mild intellectual disability learning in inclusive and special education classrooms

BACKGROUND

This longitudinal study examines the extent to which a school classroom (inclusive vs. special education) is meaningful for theory of mind (ToM) development among children with mild intellectual disability.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The participant group consisted of 166 primary school-aged children (M = 8.1, SD = 0.99), 79 of whom attended inclusive classrooms; the remaining 87 were in special education classrooms.

RESULTS

Although all children developed ToM over time, children's learning of ToM in inclusive classrooms was significantly greater than that seen in special classrooms. The difference remained significant after controlling for age. The present authors have compared children's individual and family characteristics, but there were almost no differences between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The present authors discuss the results in the light of their importance for children's cognitive and social development. The implications for children's education are also considered.

Self-concept research with school-aged youth with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Research on the self-concept of youth with intellectual disabilities has not been summarized in more than four decades. The present systematic review addresses this gap.

METHOD

A systematic literature search was performed in nine databases and 21 studies, published between 1979 and 2017, met our inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Significant differences between the self-concepts of youth with intellectual disabilities and typically developing (TD) youth were found in: (a) cognitive-academic self-concept in disfavour of youth with intellectual disabilities; (b) global self-concept and cognitive-academic self-concept in disfavour of children with intellectual disabilities; and (c) global, behavioural, and cognitive-academic self-concept in disfavour of youth with intellectual disabilities schooled in a special class. Additionally, except for age, intellectual functioning and school placement, no significant relations were found between the self-concept dimensions and academic achievement and sex.

CONCLUSION

Studies on self-concept research with school-aged youth with intellectual disabilities have several weaknesses that need to be advanced in future research.

Self-Esteem Trajectories and Their Social Determinants in Adolescents With Different Levels of Cognitive Ability

This study examines the development of self-esteem in a sample of 138 Australian adolescents (90 males; 48 females) with cognitive abilities in the lowest 15% (L-CA) and a matched sample of 556 Australian adolescents (312 males; 244 females) with average to high levels of cognitive abilities (A/H-CA). These participants were measured annually (Grade 7 to 12). The findings showed that adolescents with L-CA and A/H-CA experience similar high and stable self-esteem trajectories that present similar relations with key predictors (sex, school usefulness and dislike, parenting, and peer integration). Both groups revealed substantial gender differences showing higher levels of self-esteem for adolescent males remaining relatively stable over time, compared to lower levels among adolescent females which decreased until midadolescence before increasing back.

Pacing Ability in Elite Runners with Intellectual Impairment

PURPOSE

To understand how athletes invest their energy over a race, differences in pacing ability between athletes with and without intellectual impairment (II) were explored using a novel field test.

METHODS

Well-trained runners (n = 67) participated in this study, including 34 runners with II (age = 24.4 ± 4.5 yr; IQ = 63.1 ± 7.7) and 33 runners without II (age = 31.4 ± 11.2 yr). The ability to perform at a preplanned submaximal pace was assessed. Two 400-m running trials were performed on an athletics track, with an individually standardized velocity. In the first trial, the speed was imposed by auditory signals given in 20-40 m intervals, in combination with coach feedback during the initial 200 m. The participant was instructed to maintain this velocity without any feedback during the final 200 m. In trial 2, no coach feedback was permitted.

RESULTS

Repeated-measures analyses revealed a significant between-group effect. II runners deviated more from the target time than runners without II. The significant trial-group interaction effect (F = 4.15, P < 0.05) revealed that the ability to self-regulate the pace during the final 200 m improved for runners without II (trial 1, 1.7 ± 1.0 s; trial 2, 0.9 ± 0.8 s), whereas the II runners deviated even more in trial 2 (4.4 ± 4.3 s) than that in trial 1 (3.2 ± 3.9 s).

CONCLUSION

Our findings support the assumption that intellectual capacity is involved in pacing. It is demonstrated that II runners have difficulties maintaining a preplanned submaximal velocity, and this study contributes to understanding problems II exercisers might experience when exercising. With this field test, we can assess the effect of II on pacing and performance in individual athletes which will lead to a fair Paralympic classification procedure.

Emotion socialization and internalizing behavior problems in diverse youth: A bidirectional relationship across childhood

Mothers' and fathers' emotion socialization (ES) practices have been widely associated with child socioemotional outcomes. To extend this research, we examined the bidirectional relationship between parent ES practices (supportive and non-supportive parenting) and internalizing behavior problems in children of Anglo and Latino parents. Participants were 182 mothers and 162 fathers and their children with or without intellectual disability (ID). We compared the stability of mother and father ES practices across child ages 4-8. We utilized cross-lagged panel modeling to examine the bidirectional relationship between parents' ES and child internalizing behavior problems. Emotion socialization practices differed across time by parent gender, with mothers displaying higher levels of supportive parenting and lower levels of non-supportive parenting than fathers. Cross-lagged panel models revealed differential relationships between child internalizing behaviors and emotion socialization practices by parent gender and by ethnicity. Implications for intervening with culturally diverse families of children with ID are discussed.

The effects of early positive parenting and developmental delay status on child emotion dysregulation

BACKGROUND

Emotion regulation has been identified as a robust predictor of adaptive functioning across a variety of domains (Aldao et al. ). Furthermore, research examining early predictors of competence and deficits in ER suggests that factors internal to the individual (e.g. neuroregulatory reactivity, behavioural traits and cognitive ability) and external to the individual (e.g. caregiving styles and explicit ER training) contribute to the development of ER (Calkins ). Many studies have focused on internal sources or external sources; however, few have studied them simultaneously within one model, especially in studies examining children with developmental delays (DD). Here, we addressed this specific research gap and examined the contributions of one internal factor and one external factor on emotion dysregulation outcomes in middle childhood. Specifically, our current study used structural equation modelling (SEM) to examine prospective, predictive relationships between DD status, positive parenting at age 4 years and child emotion dysregulation at age 7 years.

METHOD

Participants were 151 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of young children with and without DD. A positive parenting factor was composed of sensitivity and scaffolding scores from mother-child interactions at home and in the research centre at child age 4 years. A child dysregulation factor was composed of a dysregulation code from mother-child interactions and a parent-report measure of ER and lability/negativity at age 7 years. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that positive parenting would mediate the relationship between DD and child dysregulation.

RESULTS

Mothers of children with DD exhibited fewer sensitive and scaffolding behaviours compared with mothers of typically developing children, and children with DD were more dysregulated on all measures of ER. SEM revealed that both DD status and early positive parenting predicted emotion dysregulation in middle childhood. Furthermore, findings provided support for our hypothesis that early positive parenting mediated the relationship between DD and dysregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

This work enhances our understanding of the development of ER across childhood and how endogenous child factors (DD status) and exogenous family factors (positive parenting) affect this process. Our findings provide clear implications for early intervention programmes for children with DD. Because of the predictive relationships between (a) developmental status and ER and (b) parenting and ER, the results imply that sensitive parenting behaviours should be specifically targeted in parent interventions for children with DD.

Unsupportive parenting and internalising behaviour problems in children with or without intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

Children with intellectual disability (ID) are at heightened risk for developing other psychological disorders, including internalising disorders. Anxiety and depression have been shown to be familial, and parenting is a contributing factor to the development of these disorders. To extend this research, we examined the extent to which mother and father depression and negative, unsupportive parenting related to child internalising behaviour problems, in children with ID or with typical development (TD).

METHOD

Participants were 156 mother and father dyads and their children, assessed at ages 4 and 5 years. We examined parent (mother and father) and child delay status (ID and TD) in relation to measures of both observed and self-reported unsupportive, negative parenting. Utilising moderation models, we examined the relationship between parental depression, unsupportive/negative parenting and child internalising behaviour problems.

RESULTS

Unsupportive, negative parenting differed based on parent gender and child delay status. In addition, father depression was a significant moderator of the relationship between unsupportive parenting and child internalising behaviour problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with ID were found to be at higher risk of experiencing unsupportive, negative parenting than children with TD. Children of depressed fathers were especially vulnerable to developing internalising behaviour problems in an unsupportive parenting context.

The transactional relationship between parenting and emotion regulation in children with or without developmental delays

Researchers have identified numerous internal and external factors that contribute to individual differences in emotion regulation (ER) abilities. To extend these findings, we examined the longitudinal effects of a significant external predictor (parenting) on children's ER abilities in the context of an internal predictor (intellectual functioning). We used cross-lagged panel modeling to investigate the transactional relationship between parenting and ER in children with or without developmental delays (DD) across three time points in early and middle childhood (age 3, 5, and 8). Participants were 225 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of young children with or without DD. Child ER ability and maternal scaffolding skills were coded from mother-child interactions at ages 3, 5, and 8. Compared to children with typical development (TD), children with DD were significantly more dysregulated at all time points, and their mothers exhibited fewer scaffolding behaviors in early childhood. In addition, cross-lagged panel models revealed a significant bidirectional relationship between maternal scaffolding and ER from ages 3 to 5 in the DD group but not the TD group. These findings suggest that scaffolding may be a crucial parenting skill to target in the early treatment of children with ER difficulties.