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Daniluk K, Lange A, Pruchniewski M, Małolepszy A, Sawosz E, Jaworski S. Delivery of Melittin as a Lytic Agent via Graphene Nanoparticles as Carriers to Breast Cancer Cells. J Funct Biomater 2022; 13:jfb13040278. [PMID: 36547538 PMCID: PMC9787603 DOI: 10.3390/jfb13040278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Melittin, as an agent to lyse biological membranes, may be a promising therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer. However, because of its nonspecific actions, there is a need to use a delivery method. The conducted research determined whether carbon nanoparticles, such as graphene and graphene oxide, could be carriers for melittin to breast cancer cells. The studies included the analysis of intracellular pH, the potential of cell membranes, the type of cellular transport, and the expression of receptor proteins. By measuring the particle size, zeta potential, and FT-IT analysis, we found that the investigated nanoparticles are connected by electrostatic interactions. The level of melittin encapsulation with graphene was 86%, while with graphene oxide it was 78%. A decrease in pHi was observed for all cell lines after administration of melittin and its complex with graphene. The decrease in membrane polarization was demonstrated for all lines treated with melittin and its complex with graphene and after exposure to the complex of melittin with graphene oxide for the MDA-MB-231 and HFFF2 lines. The results showed that the investigated melittin complexes and the melittin itself act differently on different cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7). It has been shown that in MDA-MD-231 cells, melittin in a complex with graphene is transported to cells via caveolin-dependent endocytosis. On the other hand, the melittin-graphene oxide complex can reach breast cancer cells through various types of transport. Other differences in protein expression changes were also observed for tumor lines after exposure to melittin and complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Daniluk
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Lange
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michał Pruchniewski
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Artur Małolepszy
- Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 00-654 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Sawosz
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Sławomir Jaworski
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-225936675
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Bogdanov A, Bogdanov A, Chubenko V, Volkov N, Moiseenko F, Moiseyenko V. Tumor acidity: From hallmark of cancer to target of treatment. Front Oncol 2022; 12:979154. [PMID: 36106097 PMCID: PMC9467452 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.979154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor acidity is one of the cancer hallmarks and is associated with metabolic reprogramming and the use of glycolysis, which results in a high intracellular lactic acid concentration. Cancer cells avoid acid stress major by the activation and expression of proton and lactate transporters and exchangers and have an inverted pH gradient (extracellular and intracellular pHs are acid and alkaline, respectively). The shift in the tumor acid–base balance promotes proliferation, apoptosis avoidance, invasiveness, metastatic potential, aggressiveness, immune evasion, and treatment resistance. For example, weak-base chemotherapeutic agents may have a substantially reduced cellular uptake capacity due to “ion trapping”. Lactic acid negatively affects the functions of activated effector T cells, stimulates regulatory T cells, and promotes them to express programmed cell death receptor 1. On the other hand, the inversion of pH gradient could be a cancer weakness that will allow the development of new promising therapies, such as tumor-targeted pH-sensitive antibodies and pH-responsible nanoparticle conjugates with anticancer drugs. The regulation of tumor pH levels by pharmacological inhibition of pH-responsible proteins (monocarboxylate transporters, H+-ATPase, etc.) and lactate dehydrogenase A is also a promising anticancer strategy. Another idea is the oral or parenteral use of buffer systems, such as sodium bicarbonate, to neutralize tumor acidity. Buffering therapy does not counteract standard treatment methods and can be used in combination to increase effectiveness. However, the mechanisms of the anticancer effect of buffering therapy are still unclear, and more research is needed. We have attempted to summarize the basic knowledge about tumor acidity.
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Worsley CM, Veale RB, Mayne ES. The acidic tumour microenvironment: Manipulating the immune response to elicit escape. Hum Immunol 2022; 83:399-408. [PMID: 35216847 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2022.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The success of cancer treatment relies on the composition of the tumour microenvironment which is comprised of tumour cells, blood vessels, stromal cells, immune cells, and extracellular matrix components. Barriers to effective cancer treatment need to be overcome, and the acidic microenvironment of the tumour provides a key target for treatment. This review intends to provide an overview of the effects that low extracellular pH has on components of the tumour microenvironment and how they contribute to immune escape. Further, potential therapeutic targets will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M Worsley
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Haematology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; National Health Laboratory Service, South Africa.
| | - Rob B Veale
- School of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Elizabeth S Mayne
- Department of Haematology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; Department of Immunology Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa
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Li X, Buckley B, Stoletov K, Jing Y, Ranson M, Lewis JD, Kelso M, Fliegel L. Roles of the Na +/H + Exchanger Isoform 1 and Urokinase in Prostate Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413263. [PMID: 34948058 PMCID: PMC8705693 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer-associated deaths in men over 60 years of age. Most patients are killed by tumor metastasis. Recent evidence has implicated a role of the tumor microenvironment and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) in cancer cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Here, we examine the role of the Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) and uPA in DU 145 prostate cancer cell migration and colony formation. Knockout of NHE1 reduced cell migration. The effects of a series of novel NHE1/uPA hexamethylene-amiloride-based inhibitors with varying efficacy towards NHE1 and uPA were examined on prostate cancer cells. Inhibition of NHE1-alone, or with inhibitors combining NHE1 or uPA inhibition-generally did not prevent prostate cancer cell migration. However, uPA inhibition-but not NHE1 inhibition-prevented anchorage-dependent colony formation. Application of inhibitors at concentrations that only saturate uPA inhibition decreased tumor invasion in vivo. The results suggest that while knockout of NHE1 affects cell migration, these effects are not due to NHE1-dependent proton translocation. Additionally, while neither NHE1 nor uPA activity was critical in cell migration, only uPA activity appeared to be critical in anchorage-dependent colony formation of DU 145 prostate cancer cells and invasion in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuju Li
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; (X.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Benjamin Buckley
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; (B.B.); (M.R.); (M.K.)
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
- Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Konstantin Stoletov
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; (K.S.); (J.D.L.)
| | - Yang Jing
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; (X.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Marie Ranson
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; (B.B.); (M.R.); (M.K.)
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
- Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - John D. Lewis
- Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; (K.S.); (J.D.L.)
| | - Mike Kelso
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; (B.B.); (M.R.); (M.K.)
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
- Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Larry Fliegel
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; (X.L.); (Y.J.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-780-492-1848
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Pérez-Herrero E, Fernández-Medarde A. The reversed intra- and extracellular pH in tumors as a unified strategy to chemotherapeutic delivery using targeted nanocarriers. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:2243-2264. [PMID: 34522586 PMCID: PMC8424227 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Solid tumors are complex entities, comprising a wide variety of malignancies with very different molecular alterations. Despite this, they share a set of characteristics known as "hallmarks of cancer" that can be used as common therapeutic targets. Thus, every tumor needs to change its metabolism in order to obtain the energy levels required for its high proliferative rates, and these adaptations lead to alterations in extra- and intracellular pH. These changes in pH are common to all solid tumors, and can be used either as therapeutic targets, blocking the cell proton transporters and reversing the pH changes, or as means to specifically deliver anticancer drugs. In this review we will describe how proton transport inhibitors in association with nanocarriers have been designed to block the pH changes that are needed for cancer cells to survive after their metabolic adaptations. We will also describe studies aiming to decrease intracellular pH in cancer using nanoparticles as molecular cages for protons which will be released upon UV or IR light exposure. Finally, we will comment on several studies that have used the extracellular pH in cancer for an enhanced cell internalization and tumor penetration of nanocarriers and a controlled drug delivery, describing how nanocarriers are being used to increase drug stability and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Pérez-Herrero
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna 38206, Tenerife, Spain
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna 38206, Tenerife, Spain
- Instituto Universitario de Tecnologías Biomédicas, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna 38200, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Alberto Fernández-Medarde
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular Del Cáncer, Centro de Investigación Del Cáncer (USAL-CSIC), Salamanca 37007, Spain
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Abstract
Malignant tissues show a peculiar feature regarding pH: while normal tissues have a higher extracellular pH than intracellular pH, in cancer is exactly the opposite. This phenomenon is called the inversion of the pH gradient and is now considered a hallmark of malignancy. For some time, this inverted pH gradient was believed to be a secondary effect of cancer. Now, it is becoming clear that pH inversion is not an innocent consequence, but a key player in the etiopathogenesis of cancer. Therefore, addressing this issue as part of an integral treatment of neoplasia should be a necessary step for improving cancer patients' outcomes. However, the knowledge acquired in this regard through basic research has not reached bedside treatments. The most striking fact is that there are repurposed drugs and nutraceuticals with low or no toxicity that can modify the pH gradient inversion. However, these drugs have not even been tested in cancer treatment.
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Role of pH Regulatory Proteins and Dysregulation of pH in Prostate Cancer. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 182:85-110. [PMID: 32776252 DOI: 10.1007/112_2020_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the fourth most commonly diagnosed cancer, and although it is often a slow-growing malignancy, it is the second leading cause of cancer-associated deaths in men and the first in Europe and North America. In many forms of cancer, when the disease is a solid tumor confined to one organ, it is often readily treated. However, when the cancer becomes an invasive metastatic carcinoma, it is more often fatal. It is therefore of great interest to identify mechanisms that contribute to the invasion of cells to identify possible targets for therapy. During prostate cancer progression, the epithelial cells undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition that is characterized by morphological changes, a loss of cell-cell adhesion, and invasiveness. Dysregulation of pH has emerged as a hallmark of cancer with a reversed pH gradient and with a constitutively increased intracellular pH that is elevated above the extracellular pH. This phenomenon has been referred to as "a perfect storm" for cancer progression. Acid-extruding ion transporters include the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 (SLC9A1), the Na+HCO3- cotransporter NBCn1 (SLC4A7), anion exchangers, vacuolar-type adenosine triphosphatases, and the lactate-H+ cotransporters of the monocarboxylate family (MCT1 and MCT4 (SLC16A1 and 3)). Additionally, carbonic anhydrases contribute to acid transport. Of these, several have been shown to be upregulated in different human cancers including the NBCn1, MCTs, and NHE1. Here the role and contribution of acid-extruding transporters in prostate cancer growth and metastasis were examined. These proteins make significant contributions to prostate cancer progression.
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Harguindey S, Polo Orozco J, Alfarouk KO, Devesa J. Hydrogen Ion Dynamics of Cancer and a New Molecular, Biochemical and Metabolic Approach to the Etiopathogenesis and Treatment of Brain Malignancies. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20174278. [PMID: 31480530 PMCID: PMC6747469 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20174278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of cancer has been slowly but steadily progressing during the last fifty years. Some tumors with a high mortality in the past are curable nowadays. However, there is one striking exception: glioblastoma multiforme. No real breakthrough has been hitherto achieved with this tumor with ominous prognosis and very short survival. Glioblastomas, being highly glycolytic malignancies are strongly pH-dependent and driven by the sodium hydrogen exchanger 1 (NHE1) and other proton (H+) transporters. Therefore, this is one of those pathologies where the lessons recently learnt from the new pH-centered anticancer paradigm may soon bring a promising change to treatment. This contribution will discuss how the pH-centric molecular, biochemical and metabolic perspective may introduce some urgently needed and integral novel treatments. Such a prospective therapeutic approach for malignant brain tumors is developed here, either to be used alone or in combination with more standard therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Khalid O Alfarouk
- Al-Ghad International Colleges for Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah 42316, Saudi Arabia
- Alfarouk Biomedical Research LLC, Tampa, FL 33617, USA
| | - Jesús Devesa
- Scientific Direction, Foltra Medical Centre, 15886 Teo, Spain
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Selected Office Based Anticancer Treatment Strategies. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2019; 2019:7462513. [PMID: 30766601 PMCID: PMC6350558 DOI: 10.1155/2019/7462513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Over the years, the treatment of patients with cancer has varied widely as much because of recent advancements in science and medicine as the philosophies that belie their use. This paper briefly describes many of the prevailing approaches in use today with an attempt to offer some perspective of how to apply these disparate methodologies so that they may be more effectively integrated, resulting in consistently better clinical responses.
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Harguindey S, Koltai T, Reshkin SJ. Curing cancer? Further along the new pH-centric road and paradigm. Oncoscience 2018; 5:132-133. [PMID: 30035164 PMCID: PMC6049299 DOI: 10.18632/oncoscience.422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- S Harguindey
- Salvador Harguindey, Institute of Clinical Biology and Metabolism, 01004 Vitoria, Spain
| | - T Koltai
- Salvador Harguindey, Institute of Clinical Biology and Metabolism, 01004 Vitoria, Spain
| | - S J Reshkin
- Salvador Harguindey, Institute of Clinical Biology and Metabolism, 01004 Vitoria, Spain
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