Structural determinants of multimerization and dissociation in 2-Cys peroxiredoxin chaperone function

A comprehensive review of peroxiredoxin 4, a redox protein evolved in oxidative protein folding coupled with hydrogen peroxide detoxification

Peroxiredoxin (PRDX) primarily employs electrons from thioredoxin in order to reduce peroxides. PRDX4 mainly resides either in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen or in extracellular spaces. Due to the usage of alternative promoters, a first exon is transcribed from different regions of the Prdx4 gene, which results in two types of mRNAs. The first type is designated as Prdx4. It is translated with a cleavable, hydrophobic signal sequence and is expressed in most cells throughout the body. The second type is designated as Prdx4t. The peroxidase activity of PRDX4 is involved in both the reduction of hydrogen peroxides and in the oxidative folding of nascent proteins in the ER. Prdx4 appears to have evolved from an ancestral gene in Eutherians simultaneously with the evolution of sperm protamine to cysteine-rich peptides, and, therefore, the testis-specific PRDX4t is likely involved in spermatogenesis through the oxidative folding of protamine. The dysfunction of PRDX4 leads to oxidative damage and ER stress, and is related to various diseases including diabetes and cancer. In this review article we refer to the results of biological and medical research in order to unveil the functional consequences of this unique member of the PRDX family.

Systematic analysis of Prx genes in the Brachypodium genus and their expression pattern under abiotic constraints

Peroxiredoxins (Prx) are ubiquitous peroxidases required for the removal of excess free radicals produced under stress conditions. Peroxiredoxin genes (Prx) in the Brachypodium genus were identified using bioinformatics tools and their expression profiles were determined under abiotic stress using RT-qPCR. The promoter regions of Prx genes contain several cis-acting elements related to stress response. In silico expression analysis showed that B. distachyon Prx genes (BdPrx) are tissue specific. RT-qPCR analysis revealed their differential expression when exposed to salt or PEG-induced dehydration stress. In addition, the upregulation of BdPrx genes was accompanied by accumulation of H2 O2 . Exogenous application of H2 O2 induced expression of almost all BdPrx genes. The identified molecular interaction network indicated that Prx proteins may contribute to abiotic stress tolerance by regulating key enzymes involved in lignin biosynthesis. Overall, our findings suggest the potential role of Prx genes in abiotic stress tolerance and lay the foundation for future functional analyses aiming to engineer genetically improved cereal lines.

Peroxiredoxins in erythrocytes: far beyond the antioxidant role

The red blood cells (RBCs) are essential to transport oxygen (O2) and nutrients throughout the human body. Changes in the structure or functioning of the erythrocytes can lead to several deficiencies, such as hemolytic anemias, in which an increase in reactive oxidative species generation is involved in the pathophysiological process, playing a significant role in the severity of several clinical manifestations. There are important lines of defense against the damage caused by oxidizing molecules. Among the antioxidant molecules, the enzyme peroxiredoxin (Prx) has the higher decomposition power of hydrogen peroxide, especially in RBCs, standing out because of its abundance. This review aimed to present the recent findings that broke some paradigms regarding the three isoforms of Prxs found in RBC (Prx1, Prx2, and Prx6), showing that in addition to their antioxidant activity, these enzymes may have supplementary roles in transducing peroxide signals, as molecular chaperones, protecting from membrane damage, and maintenance of iron homeostasis, thus contributing to the overall survival of human RBCs, roles that seen to be disrupted in hemolytic anemia conditions.

The multifaceted nature of peroxiredoxins in chemical biology

Peroxiredoxins (Prx), thiol-dependent peroxidases, were first identified as H2O2 detoxifiers, and more recently as H2O2 sensors, intermediates in redox-signaling pathways, metabolism modulators, and chaperones. The multifaceted nature of Prx is not only dependent on their peroxidase activity but also strongly associated with specific protein-protein interactions that are being identified, and where the Prx oligomerization dynamics plays a role. Their oxidation by a peroxide substrate forms a sulfenic acid that opens a route to channel the redox signal to diverse protein targets. Recent research underscores the importance of different Prx isoforms in the cellular processes behind disease development with potential therapeutic applications.

Biophysical tools to study the oligomerization dynamics of Prx1-class peroxiredoxins

Peroxiredoxins (Prx) are ubiquitous, highly conserved peroxidases whose activity depends on catalytic cysteine residues. The Prx1-class of the peroxiredoxin family, also called typical 2-Cys Prx, organize as head-to-tail homodimers containing two active sites. The peroxidatic cysteine CP of one monomer reacts with the peroxide substrate to form sulfenic acid that reacts with the resolving cysteine (CR) of the adjacent subunit to form an intermolecular disulfide, that is reduced back by the thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase/NADPH system. Although the minimal catalytic unit is the dimer, these Prx oligomerize into (do)decamers. In addition, these ring-shaped decamers can pile-up into high molecular weight structures. Prx not only display peroxidase activity reducing H2O2, peroxynitrous acid and lipid hydroperoxides (antioxidant enzymes), but also exhibit holdase activity protecting other proteins from unfolding (molecular chaperones). Highly relevant is their participation in redox cellular signaling that is currently under active investigation. The different activities attributed to Prx are strongly ligated to their quaternary structure. In this review, we will describe different biophysical approaches used to characterize the oligomerization dynamics of Prx that include the classical size-exclusion chromatography, analytical ultracentrifugation, calorimetry, and also fluorescence anisotropy and lifetime measurements, as well as mass photometry.

Disulfide-Bond-Induced Structural Frustration and Dynamic Disorder in a Peroxiredoxin from MAS NMR

Disulfide bond formation is fundamentally important for protein structure and constitutes a key mechanism by which cells regulate the intracellular oxidation state. Peroxiredoxins (PRDXs) eliminate reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide through a catalytic cycle of Cys oxidation and reduction. Additionally, upon Cys oxidation PRDXs undergo extensive conformational rearrangements that may underlie their presently structurally poorly defined functions as molecular chaperones. Rearrangements include high molecular-weight oligomerization, the dynamics of which are, however, poorly understood, as is the impact of disulfide bond formation on these properties. Here we show that formation of disulfide bonds along the catalytic cycle induces extensive μs time scale dynamics, as monitored by magic-angle spinning NMR of the 216 kDa-large Tsa1 decameric assembly and solution-NMR of a designed dimeric mutant. We ascribe the conformational dynamics to structural frustration, resulting from conflicts between the disulfide-constrained reduction of mobility and the desire to fulfill other favorable contacts.

Temporal Coordination of the Transcription Factor Response to H2O2 stress

Oxidative stress from excess H2O2 activates transcription factors (TFs) that restore redox balance and repair oxidative damage. Though many TFs are activated by H2O2, it is unknown whether they are activated at the same H2O2 concentration or time after H2O2 stress. We found TF activation is tightly coordinated over time and dose dependent. We first focused on p53 and FOXO1 and found that in response to low H2O2, p53 is activated rapidly while FOXO1 remains inactive. In contrast, cells respond to high H2O2 in two temporal phases. In the first phase FOXO1 rapidly shuttles to the nucleus while p53 remains inactive. In the second phase FOXO1 shuts off and p53 levels rise. Other TFs are activated in the first phase with FOXO1 (NF-κB, NFAT1), or the second phase with p53 (NRF2, JUN), but not both. The two phases result in large differences in gene expression. Finally, we provide evidence that 2-Cys peroxiredoxins control which TF are activated and the timing of TF activation.

The Role of Peroxiredoxins in Cancer Development

Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are antioxidant enzymes with ubiquitous expression in human tissues. Prxs are expressed in archaea, bacteria, and eukaryota, often in multiple isoforms. Because of their abundant expression in different cellular organelles and extraordinary sensitivity to H2O2, Prxs are among the first defenses against oxidative stress. Prxs undergo reversible oxidation to disulfides, and some family members perform chaperone or phospholipase functions upon further oxidation. Prxs are upregulated in cancer cells. Research has suggested that Prxs can function as tumor promoters in various cancers. The major objective of this review is to summarize novel findings regarding the roles of Prxs in common cancer types. Prxs have been shown to influence differentiation of inflammatory cells and fibroblasts, remodeling of extracellular matrix, and regulation of stemness. Since aggressive cancer cells have higher intracellular levels of ROS that they can utilize to proliferate and metastasize compared to normal cells, it is critical that we understand the regulation and functions of primary antioxidants such as Prxs. These small but mighty proteins could prove to be key for improving cancer therapeutics and patient survival.

Temporal Coordination of the Transcription Factor Response to H2O2 stress

The p53 and FOXO transcription factors (TFs) share many similarities despite their distinct evolutionary origins. Both TFs are activated by a variety of cellular stresses and upregulate genes in similar pathways including cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. Oxidative stress from excess H2O2 activates both FOXO1 and p53, yet whether they are activated at the same time is unclear. Here we found that cells respond to high H2O2 levels in two temporal phases. In the first phase FOXO1 rapidly shuttles to the nucleus while p53 levels remain low. In the second phase FOXO1 exits the nucleus and p53 levels rise. We found that other oxidative stress induced TFs are activated in the first phase with FOXO1 (NF-κB, NFAT1), or the second phase with p53 (NRF2, JUN) but not both following H2O2 stress. The two TF phases result in large differences in gene expression patterns. Finally, we provide evidence that 2-Cys peroxiredoxins control the timing of the TF phases in response to H2O2.

Loss of 2-Cys-Prx affects cellular ultrastructure, disturbs redox poise and impairs photosynthesis in cyanobacteria

In a striking similarity to plant chloroplasts, the cyanobacterium Anabaena displays very low catalase activity, but expresses several peroxiredoxins (Prxs), including the typical 2-Cys-Prx (annotated as Alr4641), that detoxify H₂ O₂ . Due to the presence of multiple Prxs, the precise contribution of Alr4641 to the oxidative stress response of Anabaena is not well-defined. To unambiguously assess its in vivo function, the Alr4641 protein was knocked down using the CRISPRi approach in Anabaena PCC 7120. The knockdown strain (An-KD4641), which showed over 85% decrease in the content of Alr4641, was viable, but grew slower than the control strain (An-dCas9). An-KD4641 showed elevated levels of reactive oxygen species and the expression of several redox-responsive genes was analogous to that of An-dCas9 subjected to oxidative stress. The knockdown strain displayed reduced filament size, altered thylakoid ultrastructure, a marked drop in the ratio of phycocyanin to chlorophyll a and decreased photosynthetic parameters compared to An-dCas9. In comparison to the control strain, exposure to H₂ O₂ had a more severe effect on the photosynthetic parameters or survival of An-KD4641. Thus, in the absence of adequate catalase activity, 2-Cys-Prx appears to be the principal Prx responsible for maintaining redox homoeostasis in diverse photosynthetic systems ranging from chloroplasts to cyanobacteria.

Peroxiredoxin, Senescence, and Cancer

Peroxiredoxins are multifunctional enzymes that play a key role in protecting cells from stresses and maintaining the homeostasis of many cellular processes. Peroxiredoxins were firstly identified as antioxidant enzymes that can be found in all living organisms. Later studies demonstrated that peroxiredoxins also act as redox signaling regulators, chaperones, and proinflammatory factors and play important roles in oxidative defense, redox signaling, protein folding, cycle cell progression, DNA integrity, inflammation, and carcinogenesis. The versatility of peroxiredoxins is mainly based on their unique active center cysteine with a wide range of redox states and the ability to switch between low- and high-molecular-weight species for regulating their peroxidase and chaperone activities. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of peroxiredoxin in these processes will allow the development of new approaches to enhance longevity and to treat various cancers. In this article, we briefly review the history of peroxiredoxins, summarize recent advances in our understanding of peroxiredoxins in aging- and cancer-related biological processes, and discuss the future perspectives of using peroxiredoxins in disease diagnostics and treatments.

Fluorescence Lifetime Phasor Analysis of the Decamer-Dimer Equilibrium of Human Peroxiredoxin 1

Protein self-assembly is a common feature in biology and is often required for a myriad of fundamental processes, such as enzyme activity, signal transduction, and transport of solutes across membranes, among others. There are several techniques to find and assess homo-oligomer formation in proteins. Naturally, all these methods have their limitations, meaning that at least two or more different approaches are needed to characterize a case study. Herein, we present a new method to study protein associations using intrinsic fluorescence lifetime with phasors. In this case, the method is applied to determine the equilibrium dissociation constant (KD) of human peroxiredoxin 1 (hPrx1), an efficient cysteine-dependent peroxidase, that has a quaternary structure comprised of five head-to-tail homodimers non-covalently arranged in a decamer. The hPrx1 oligomeric state not only affects its activity but also its association with other proteins. The excited state lifetime of hPrx1 has distinct values at high and low concentrations, suggesting the presence of two different species. Phasor analysis of hPrx1 emission lifetime allowed for the identification and quantification of hPrx1 decamers, dimers, and their mixture at diverse protein concentrations. Using phasor algebra, we calculated the fraction of hPrx1 decamers at different concentrations and obtained KD (1.1 × 10-24 M4) and C0.5 (1.36 μM) values for the decamer-dimer equilibrium. The results were validated and compared with size exclusion chromatography. In addition, spectral phasors provided similar results despite the small differences in emission spectra as a function of hPrx1 concentration. The phasor approach was shown to be a highly sensitive and quantitative method to assess protein oligomerization and an attractive addition to the biophysicist's toolkit.

Spatial and temporal control of mitochondrial H2 O2 release in intact human cells

Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) has key signaling roles at physiological levels, while causing molecular damage at elevated concentrations. H2 O2 production by mitochondria is implicated in regulating processes inside and outside these organelles. However, it remains unclear whether and how mitochondria in intact cells release H2 O2 . Here, we employed a genetically encoded high-affinity H2 O2 sensor, HyPer7, in mammalian tissue culture cells to investigate different modes of mitochondrial H2 O2 release. We found substantial heterogeneity of HyPer7 dynamics between individual cells. We further observed mitochondria-released H2 O2 directly at the surface of the organelle and in the bulk cytosol, but not in the nucleus or at the plasma membrane, pointing to steep gradients emanating from mitochondria. Gradient formation is controlled by cytosolic peroxiredoxins, which act redundantly and with a substantial reserve capacity. Dynamic adaptation of cytosolic thioredoxin reductase levels during metabolic changes results in improved H2 O2 handling and explains previously observed differences between cell types. Our data suggest that H2 O2 -mediated signaling is initiated only in close proximity to mitochondria and under specific metabolic conditions.

Impact of Hydrogen Peroxide on Protein Synthesis in Yeast

Cells must be able to respond and adapt to different stress conditions to maintain normal function. A common response to stress is the global inhibition of protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is an expensive process consuming much of the cell's energy. Consequently, it must be tightly regulated to conserve resources. One of these stress conditions is oxidative stress, resulting from the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) mainly produced by the mitochondria but also by other intracellular sources. Cells utilize a variety of antioxidant systems to protect against ROS, directing signaling and adaptation responses at lower levels and/or detoxification as levels increase to preclude the accumulation of damage. In this review, we focus on the role of hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂, as a signaling molecule regulating protein synthesis at different levels, including transcription and various parts of the translation process, e.g., initiation, elongation, termination and ribosome recycling.