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Beraza E, Serrano-Civantos M, Izco M, Alvarez-Erviti L, Gonzalez-Peñas E, Vettorazzi A. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Fluorescence Detection Method for Ochratoxin A Quantification in Small Mice Sample Volumes: Versatile Application across Diverse Matrices Relevant for Neurodegeneration Research. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:213. [PMID: 38787065 PMCID: PMC11125890 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin commonly found in various food products, which poses potential health risks to humans and animals. Recently, more attention has been directed towards its potential neurodegenerative effects. However, there are currently no fully validated HPLC analytical methods established for its quantification in mice, the primary animal model in this field, that include pivotal tissues in this area of research, such as the intestine and brain. To address this gap, we developed and validated a highly sensitive, rapid, and simple method using HPLC-FLD for OTA determination in mice tissues (kidney, liver, brain, and intestine) as well as plasma samples. The method was rigorously validated for selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, recovery, dilution integrity, carry-over effect, stability, and robustness, meeting the validation criteria outlined by FDA and EMA guidelines. Furthermore, the described method enables the quantification of OTA in each individual sample using minimal tissue mass while maintaining excellent recovery values. The applicability of the method was demonstrated in a repeated low-dose OTA study in Balb/c mice, which, together with the inclusion of relevant and less common tissues in the validation process, underscore its suitability for neurodegeneration-related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elba Beraza
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (E.B.); (M.S.-C.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Maria Serrano-Civantos
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (E.B.); (M.S.-C.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Maria Izco
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Center for Biomedical Research of La Rioja (CIBIR), Piqueras 98, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (M.I.); (L.A.-E.)
| | - Lydia Alvarez-Erviti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Center for Biomedical Research of La Rioja (CIBIR), Piqueras 98, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (M.I.); (L.A.-E.)
| | - Elena Gonzalez-Peñas
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (E.B.); (M.S.-C.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (E.B.); (M.S.-C.); (E.G.-P.)
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Poór M, Dombi Á, Fliszár-Nyúl E, Pedroni L, Dellafiora L. Effects of Chrysin and Chrysin-7-sulfate on Ochratoxin A-Albumin Interactions and on the Plasma and Kidney Levels of the Mycotoxin in Rats. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:17655-17666. [PMID: 38645364 PMCID: PMC11024961 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c01738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
The nephrotoxic mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common food contaminant. OTA binds to the Sudlow's Site I region of serum albumin with very high affinity, resulting in its slow elimination. The displacement of OTA from albumin may be beneficial due to the faster excretion of the mycotoxin, while it may also lead to the increased tissue uptake of OTA. Furthermore, it is challenging to displace the mycotoxin from albumin even with high-affinity Site I ligands. In this study, we tested the impacts of Site I and Heme site ligands on OTA-albumin interactions by applying fluorescence spectroscopic, ultracentrifugation, and modeling studies. Chrysin-7-sulfate (C7S) strongly displaced OTA from both human and rat albumins; therefore, the impacts of C7S (single intravenous administration) and the parent flavonoid chrysin (repeated peroral treatment) were examined on the plasma and kidney levels of OTA in rats. Chrysin barely influenced the concentrations of mycotoxin in plasma and kidneys. In the first few hours, C7S significantly decreased the plasma levels of OTA compared to the control animals; while after 24 h, only minor differences were noticed. Our study highlights the superior displacing ability of C7S vs OTA regarding human and rat albumins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklós Poór
- Department
of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
- Molecular
Medicine Research Group, János Szentágothai Research
Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja
20, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
- Department
of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Dombi
- Department
of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
| | - Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department
of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
| | - Lorenzo Pedroni
- Department
of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. Usberti 27/A, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department
of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. Usberti 27/A, Parma 43124, Italy
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3
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Kaci H, Dombi Á, Gömbös P, Szabó A, Bakos É, Özvegy-Laczka C, Poór M. Interaction of mycotoxins zearalenone, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol with cytochrome P450 (CYP1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4) enzymes and organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP1A2, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OATP2B1). Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 96:105789. [PMID: 38341109 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogen produced by Fusarium fungi. ZEN is a frequent contaminant in cereal-based products, representing significant health threat. The major reduced metabolites of ZEN are α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL). Since the toxicokinetic interactions of ZEN/ZELs with cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) and organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) have been barely characterized, we examined these interactions applying in vitro models. ZEN and ZELs were relatively strong inhibitors of CYP3A4 and moderate inhibitors of CYP1A2 and CYP2C9. Both CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 decreased ZEN and β-ZEL concentrations in depletion assays, while only CYP1A2 reduced α-ZEL levels. OATPs tested were strongly or moderately inhibited by ZEN and ZELs; however, these mycotoxins did not show higher cytotoxicity in OATP-overexpressing cells. Our results help the deeper understanding of the toxicokinetic/pharmacokinetic interactions of ZEN, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Kaci
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, HUN-REN, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Budapest H-1117, Hungary; Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány P. stny. 1/C, Budapest H-1117, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Dombi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, Pécs H-7624, Hungary
| | - Patrik Gömbös
- Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Department of Physiology and Animal Health, Agribiotechnology and Precision Breeding for Food Security National Laboratory, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gödöllő H-2103, Hungary
| | - András Szabó
- Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Department of Physiology and Animal Health, Agribiotechnology and Precision Breeding for Food Security National Laboratory, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gödöllő H-2103, Hungary; HUN-REN-MATE Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor Str. 40, Kaposvár 7400, Hungary
| | - Éva Bakos
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, HUN-REN, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Budapest H-1117, Hungary
| | - Csilla Özvegy-Laczka
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, HUN-REN, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Budapest H-1117, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, Pécs H-7624, Hungary; Molecular Medicine Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, Pécs H-7624, Hungary.
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Obafemi BA, Adedara IA, Rocha JBT. Neurotoxicity of ochratoxin A: Molecular mechanisms and neurotherapeutic strategies. Toxicology 2023; 497-498:153630. [PMID: 37709162 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Data from epidemiological and experimental studies have evidenced that some chemical contaminants in food elicit their harmful effects by targeting the central nervous system. Ochratoxin A is a foodborne mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Research on neurotoxicity associated with ochratoxin A exposure has increased greatly in recent years. The present review accrued substantial evidence on the neurotoxicity associated with ochratoxin A exposure as well as discussed notable susceptible targets of noxious ochratoxin A at molecular, cellular and genetic levels. Specifically, the neurotoxic mechanisms associated with ochratoxin A exposure were unequivocally unraveled in vitro using human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, mouse hippocampal HT22 cells, human astrocyte (NHA-SV40LT) cells and microglia cells as well as in vivo using mammalian and non-mammalian models. Data from human biomonitoring studies on plasma ochratoxin A levels in patients with neurodegenerative diseases with some age- and sex-related responses were also highlighted. Moreover, the neurotherapeutic mechanisms of some naturally occurring bioactive compounds against ochratoxin A neurotoxicity are reviewed. Collectively, accumulated data from literature demonstrate that ochratoxin A is a neurotoxin with potential pathological involvement in neurological disorders. Cutting edge original translational research on the development of neurotherapeutics for neurotoxicity associated with foodborne toxicants including ochratoxin A is indispensable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blessing A Obafemi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil; Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Isaac A Adedara
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Center of Rural Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Camobi, 97105- 900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
| | - Joao B T Rocha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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Więckowska M, Szelenberger R, Niemcewicz M, Harmata P, Poplawski T, Bijak M. Ochratoxin A-The Current Knowledge Concerning Hepatotoxicity, Mode of Action and Possible Prevention. Molecules 2023; 28:6617. [PMID: 37764392 PMCID: PMC10534339 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered as the most toxic of the other ochratoxins synthesized by various fungal species belonging to the Aspergillus and Penicillium families. OTA commonly contaminates food and beverages, resulting in animal and human health issues. The toxicity of OTA is known to cause liver damage and is still being researched. However, current findings do not provide clear insights into the toxin mechanism of action. The current studies focusing on the use of potentially protective compounds against the effects of the toxin are insufficient as they are mainly conducted on animals. Further research is required to fill the existing gaps in both fields (namely the exact OTA molecular mechanism and the prevention of its toxicity in the human liver). This review article is a summary of the so far obtained results of studies focusing on the OTA hepatotoxicity, its mode of action, and the known approaches of liver cells protection, which may be the base for expanding other research in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Więckowska
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (M.W.); (R.S.); (M.N.)
| | - Rafał Szelenberger
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (M.W.); (R.S.); (M.N.)
| | - Marcin Niemcewicz
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (M.W.); (R.S.); (M.N.)
| | - Piotr Harmata
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, 2 gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Tomasz Poplawski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 92-215 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Michał Bijak
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (M.W.); (R.S.); (M.N.)
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Fliszár-Nyúl E, Ungvári O, Dombi Á, Özvegy-Laczka C, Poór M. Interactions of Mycotoxin Alternariol with Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and OATP Transporters. Metabolites 2022; 13:metabo13010045. [PMID: 36676970 PMCID: PMC9862037 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by Alternaria strains. The acute toxicity of the mycotoxin is low; however, chronic exposure to AOH may result in the development of endocrine disruptor and/or carcinogenic effects. The toxicokinetic properties of AOH have barely been characterized. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate its interactions with CYP (1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4) enzymes and OATP (1A2, 1B1, 1B3, and 2B1) transporters employing in vitro enzyme assays and OATP overexpressing cells, respectively. Our results demonstrated that AOH is a strong inhibitor of CYP1A2 (IC50 = 0.15 μM) and CYP2C9 (IC50 = 7.4 μM). Based on the AOH depletion assays in the presence of CYP enzymes, CYP1A2 is mainly involved, while CYP2C19 is moderately involved in the CYP-catalyzed biotransformation of the mycotoxin. AOH proved to be a strong inhibitor of each OATP transporter examined (IC50 = 1.9 to 5.4 μM). In addition, both direct and indirect assays suggest the involvement of OATP1B1 in the cellular uptake of the mycotoxin. These findings promote the deeper understanding of certain toxicokinetic interactions of AOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Ungvári
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány P. stny. 1/C, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Dombi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Csilla Özvegy-Laczka
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Correspondence:
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TAN D, CUI J, QIN L, CHEN L, WANG Y, ZHANG Q, HE Y. The role of OATP1A1 in cholestasis and drug-induced toxicity: a systematic review. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.70722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jinguo CUI
- Baodi Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, China
| | - Lin QIN
- Zunyi Medical University, China
| | - Li CHEN
- Zunyi Medical University, China
| | - Yuhe WANG
- Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, China
| | | | - Yuqi HE
- Zunyi Medical University, China
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Ruan H, Lu Q, Wu J, Qin J, Sui M, Sun X, Shi Y, Luo J, Yang M. Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:2281-2308. [PMID: 34346825 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1960794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem and a serious threat to people's health. Most food-borne mycotoxins have strong hepatotoxicity. However, no effective methods have been found to prevent or treat Mycotoxin- Induced Liver Injury (MILI) in clinical and animal husbandry. In this paper, the molecular mechanisms and potential anti-MILI medicines of six food-borne MILI are reviewed, and their targets are predicted by network toxicology, which provides a theoretical basis for further study of the toxicity mechanism of MILI and the development of effective strategies to manage MILI-related health problems in the future and accelerate the development of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haonan Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Lu
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jiashuo Wu
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaan Qin
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Sui
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xinqi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Shi
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaoyang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Meihua Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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Inhibitory Effects of Quercetin and Its Main Methyl, Sulfate, and Glucuronic Acid Conjugates on Cytochrome P450 Enzymes, and on OATP, BCRP and MRP2 Transporters. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12082306. [PMID: 32751996 PMCID: PMC7468908 DOI: 10.3390/nu12082306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Quercetin is a flavonoid, its glycosides and aglycone are found in significant amounts in several plants and dietary supplements. Because of the high presystemic biotransformation of quercetin, mainly its conjugates appear in circulation. As has been reported in previous studies, quercetin can interact with several proteins of pharmacokinetic importance. However, the interactions of its metabolites with biotransformation enzymes and drug transporters have barely been examined. In this study, the inhibitory effects of quercetin and its most relevant methyl, sulfate, and glucuronide metabolites were tested on cytochrome P450 (CYP) (2C19, 3A4, and 2D6) enzymes as well as on organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATPs) (OATP1A2, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OATP2B1) and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) Binding Cassette (ABC) (BCRP and MRP2) transporters. Quercetin and its metabolites (quercetin-3'-sulfate, quercetin-3-glucuronide, isorhamnetin, and isorhamnetin-3-glucuronide) showed weak inhibitory effects on CYP2C19 and 3A4, while they did not affect CYP2D6 activity. Some of the flavonoids caused weak inhibition of OATP1A2 and MRP2. However, most of the compounds tested proved to be strong inhibitors of OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1, and BCRP. Our data demonstrate that not only quercetin but some of its conjugates, can also interact with CYP enzymes and drug transporters. Therefore, high intake of quercetin may interfere with the pharmacokinetics of drugs.
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