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Shomar H, Bokinsky G. Harnessing iron‑sulfur enzymes for synthetic biology. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2024; 1871:119718. [PMID: 38574823 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2024.119718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Reactions catalysed by iron-sulfur (Fe-S) enzymes appear in a variety of biosynthetic pathways that produce valuable natural products. Harnessing these biosynthetic pathways by expression in microbial cell factories grown on an industrial scale would yield enormous economic and environmental benefits. However, Fe-S enzymes often become bottlenecks that limits the productivity of engineered pathways. As a consequence, achieving the production metrics required for industrial application remains a distant goal for Fe-S enzyme-dependent pathways. Here, we identify and review three core challenges in harnessing Fe-S enzyme activity, which all stem from the properties of Fe-S clusters: 1) limited Fe-S cluster supply within the host cell, 2) Fe-S cluster instability, and 3) lack of specialized reducing cofactor proteins often required for Fe-S enzyme activity, such as enzyme-specific flavodoxins and ferredoxins. We highlight successful methods developed for a variety of Fe-S enzymes and electron carriers for overcoming these difficulties. We use heterologous nitrogenase expression as a grand case study demonstrating how each of these challenges can be addressed. We predict that recent breakthroughs in protein structure prediction and design will prove well-suited to addressing each of these challenges. A reliable toolkit for harnessing Fe-S enzymes in engineered metabolic pathways will accelerate the development of industry-ready Fe-S enzyme-dependent biosynthesis pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Shomar
- Institut Pasteur, université Paris Cité, Inserm U1284, Diversité moléculaire des microbes (Molecular Diversity of Microbes lab), 75015 Paris, France
| | - Gregory Bokinsky
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands.
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2
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Lee M, Fraaije MW. Equipping Saccharomyces cerevisiae with an Additional Redox Cofactor Allows F 420-Dependent Bioconversions in Yeast. ACS Synth Biol 2024; 13:921-929. [PMID: 38346396 PMCID: PMC10949242 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.3c00718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/16/2024]
Abstract
Industrial application of the natural deazaflavin cofactor F420 has high potential for the enzymatic synthesis of high value compounds. It can offer an additional range of chemistry to the use of well-explored redox cofactors such as FAD and their respective enzymes. Its limited access through organisms that are rather difficult to grow has urged research on the heterologous production of F420 using more industrially relevant microorganisms such as Escherichia coli. In this study, we demonstrate the possibility of producing this cofactor in a robust and widely used industrial organism, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, by the heterologous expression of the F420 pathway. Through careful selection of involved enzymes and some optimization, we achieved an F420 yield of ∼1.3 μmol/L, which is comparable to the yield of natural F420 producers. Furthermore, we showed the potential use of F420-producing S. cerevisiae for F420-dependent bioconversions by carrying out the whole-cell conversion of tetracycline. As the first demonstration of F420 synthesis and use for bioconversion in a eukaryotic organism, this study contributes to the development of versatile bioconversion platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marco W. Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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3
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Kordi N, Saydi A, Karami S, Bagherzadeh-Rahmani B, Marzetti E, Jung F, Stockwell BR. Ferroptosis and aerobic training in ageing: A review. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc 2024:CH232076. [PMID: 38306027 DOI: 10.3233/ch-232076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Ferroptosis is a form of programmed cell death that plays a significant role in causing several diseases such as heart attack and heart failure, through alterations in fat, amino acid, and iron metabolism. Comprehending the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis signaling is critical because it has a considerable effect on the elderly's mortality. Conversely, age-related changes in substrate metabolism and metabolite levels are recognized to give rise to obesity. Furthermore, research has proposed that aging and obesity-related changes in substrate metabolism may aggravate ferroptosis. The suppression of ferroptosis holds potential as a successful therapeutic approach for managing different diseases, including sarcopenia, cardiovascular diseases, and central nervous system diseases. However, the pathologic and biological mechanisms behind the function of ferroptosis are not fully comprehended yet. Physical activity could affect lipid, amino acid, and iron metabolism to modulate ferroptosis. The aim of this study is to showcase the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms leading to ferroptosis and discuss the role of aging and physical activity in this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negin Kordi
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ali Saydi
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sajad Karami
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnam Bagherzadeh-Rahmani
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Emanuele Marzetti
- Department of Geriatrics and Orthopedics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy; Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Friedrich Jung
- Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Brent R Stockwell
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, NewYork, NY, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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4
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Barghout RA, Xu Z, Betala S, Mahadevan R. Advances in generative modeling methods and datasets to design novel enzymes for renewable chemicals and fuels. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2023; 84:103007. [PMID: 37931573 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2023.103007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Biotechnology has revolutionized the development of sustainable energy sources by harnessing biomass as a feedstock for energy production. However, challenges such as recalcitrant feedstocks and inefficient metabolic pathways hinder the large-scale integration of renewable energy systems. Enzyme engineering has emerged as a powerful tool to address these challenges by enhancing enzyme activity, specificity, and stability. Generative machine learning (ML) models have shown great promise in accelerating protein design, allowing for the generation of novel protein sequences with desired properties by navigating vast spaces. This review paper aims to summarize the state of the art in generative models for protein design and how they can be applied to bioenergy applications, including the underlying architectures and training strategies. Additionally, it highlights the importance of high-quality datasets for training and evaluating generative models, organizes available datasets for generative protein design, and discusses the potential of applying generative models to strain design for bioenergy production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana A Barghout
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Zhiqing Xu
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Siddharth Betala
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Radhakrishnan Mahadevan
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St, Toronto, ON, Canada
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5
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Marquez MD, Greth C, Buzuk A, Liu Y, Blinn CM, Beller S, Leiskau L, Hushka A, Wu K, Nur K, Netz DJA, Perlstein DL, Pierik AJ. Cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly system identifies clients by a C-terminal tripeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2311057120. [PMID: 37883440 PMCID: PMC10623007 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311057120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The eukaryotic cytosolic Fe-S protein assembly (CIA) machinery inserts iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters into cytosolic and nuclear proteins. In the final maturation step, the Fe-S cluster is transferred to the apo-proteins by the CIA-targeting complex (CTC). However, the molecular recognition determinants of client proteins are unknown. We show that a conserved [LIM]-[DES]-[WF]-COO- tripeptide is present at the C-terminus of more than a quarter of clients or their adaptors. When present, this targeting complex recognition (TCR) motif is necessary and sufficient for binding to the CTC in vitro and for directing Fe-S cluster delivery in vivo. Remarkably, fusion of this TCR signal enables engineering of cluster maturation on a nonnative protein via recruitment of the CIA machinery. Our study advances our understanding of Fe-S protein maturation and paves the way for bioengineering novel pathways containing Fe-S enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carina Greth
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | | | - Yaxi Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
| | - Catharina M. Blinn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | - Simone Beller
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | - Laura Leiskau
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | - Anthony Hushka
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
| | - Kassandra Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
| | - Kübra Nur
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | - Daili J. A. Netz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
| | | | - Antonio J. Pierik
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern67663, Germany
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Pyne ME, Bagley JA, Narcross L, Kevvai K, Exley K, Davies M, Wang Q, Whiteway M, Martin VJJ. Screening non-conventional yeasts for acid tolerance and engineering Pichia occidentalis for production of muconic acid. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5294. [PMID: 37652930 PMCID: PMC10471774 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41064-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a workhorse of industrial biotechnology owing to the organism's prominence in alcohol fermentation and the suite of sophisticated genetic tools available to manipulate its metabolism. However, S. cerevisiae is not suited to overproduce many bulk bioproducts, as toxicity constrains production at high titers. Here, we employ a high-throughput assay to screen 108 publicly accessible yeast strains for tolerance to 20 g L-1 adipic acid (AA), a nylon precursor. We identify 15 tolerant yeasts and select Pichia occidentalis for production of cis,cis-muconic acid (CCM), the precursor to AA. By developing a genome editing toolkit for P. occidentalis, we demonstrate fed-batch production of CCM with a maximum titer (38.8 g L-1), yield (0.134 g g-1 glucose) and productivity (0.511 g L-1 h-1) that surpasses all metrics achieved using S. cerevisiae. This work brings us closer to the industrial bioproduction of AA and underscores the importance of host selection in bioprocessing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Pyne
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, Ontario, Canada
| | - James A Bagley
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Lauren Narcross
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Amyris, Inc., Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Kaspar Kevvai
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Pivot Bio, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Kealan Exley
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Meghan Davies
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- BenchSci, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Malcolm Whiteway
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Vincent J J Martin
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada.
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada.
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Marquez MD, Greth C, Buzuk A, Liu Y, Blinn CM, Beller S, Leiskau L, Hushka A, Wu K, Nur K, Netz DJ, Perlstein DL, Pierik AJ. Cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly system identifies clients by a C-terminal tripeptide. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.19.541488. [PMID: 37292740 PMCID: PMC10245660 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.19.541488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The eukaryotic cytosolic Fe-S protein assembly (CIA) machinery inserts iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters into cytosolic and nuclear proteins. In the final maturation step, the Fe-S cluster is transferred to the apo-proteins by the CIA-targeting complex (CTC). However, the molecular recognition determinants of client proteins are unknown. We show that a conserved [LIM]-[DES]-[WF]-COO- tripeptide present at the C-terminus of clients is necessary and sufficient for binding to the CTC in vitro and directing Fe-S cluster delivery in vivo. Remarkably, fusion of this TCR (target complex recognition) signal enables engineering of cluster maturation on a non-native protein via recruitment of the CIA machinery. Our study significantly advances our understanding of Fe-S protein maturation and paves the way for bioengineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carina Greth
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | | | - Yaxi Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University; Boston, MA, USA
| | - Catharina M. Blinn
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Simone Beller
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Laura Leiskau
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Anthony Hushka
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University; Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kassandra Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University; Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kübra Nur
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Daili J. Netz
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | | | - Antonio J. Pierik
- Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau; 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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8
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Liu J, Kang R, Tang D. Signaling pathways and defense mechanisms of ferroptosis. FEBS J 2022; 289:7038-7050. [PMID: 34092035 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
As a type of lytic cell death driven by unrestricted lipid peroxidation and subsequent plasma membrane damage, ferroptosis occurs and develops because of sophisticated signals and regulatory mechanisms. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) used to initiate ferroptosis come from a variety of sources, including iron-mediated Fenton reactions, mitochondrial ROS, and membrane-associated ROS driven by the NOX protein family. Polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing phospholipids are the main substrates of lipid peroxidation in ferroptosis, which is positively regulated by enzymes, such as ACSL4, LPCAT3, ALOXs, or POR. Selective activation of autophagic degradation pathways promotes ferroptosis by increasing iron accumulation to cause lipid peroxidation. In contrast, system xc- -glutathione-GPX4 axis plays a central role in limiting lipid peroxidation, although other antioxidants (such as coenzyme Q10 and tetrahydrobiopterin) can also inhibit ferroptosis. A main nuclear mechanism of cell defense against ferroptosis is the activation of the NFE2L2-dependent antioxidant response by transcriptionally upregulating the expression of antioxidants or cytoprotective genes. Additionally, the membrane damage caused by ferroptotic stimulus can be repaired by ESCRT-III-dependent membrane scission machinery. In this review, we summarize recent progress in understanding the signaling pathways and defense mechanisms of ferroptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Liu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rui Kang
- Department of Surgery, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Daolin Tang
- Department of Surgery, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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9
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van Aalst AC, de Valk SC, van Gulik WM, Jansen ML, Pronk JT, Mans R. Pathway engineering strategies for improved product yield in yeast-based industrial ethanol production. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2022; 7:554-566. [PMID: 35128088 PMCID: PMC8792080 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2021.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Product yield on carbohydrate feedstocks is a key performance indicator for industrial ethanol production with the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This paper reviews pathway engineering strategies for improving ethanol yield on glucose and/or sucrose in anaerobic cultures of this yeast by altering the ratio of ethanol production, yeast growth and glycerol formation. Particular attention is paid to strategies aimed at altering energy coupling of alcoholic fermentation and to strategies for altering redox-cofactor coupling in carbon and nitrogen metabolism that aim to reduce or eliminate the role of glycerol formation in anaerobic redox metabolism. In addition to providing an overview of scientific advances we discuss context dependency, theoretical impact and potential for industrial application of different proposed and developed strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aafke C.A. van Aalst
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Sophie C. de Valk
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Walter M. van Gulik
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Mickel L.A. Jansen
- DSM Biotechnology Centre, Alexander Fleminglaan 1, 2613, AX Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Jack T. Pronk
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Robert Mans
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629, HZ Delft, the Netherlands
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Shomar H, Bokinsky G. Towards a Synthetic Biology Toolset for Metallocluster Enzymes in Biosynthetic Pathways: What We Know and What We Need. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226930. [PMID: 34834021 PMCID: PMC8617995 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes are routinely engineered to synthesize high-value chemicals from renewable materials through synthetic biology and metabolic engineering. Microbial biosynthesis often relies on expression of heterologous biosynthetic pathways, i.e., enzymes transplanted from foreign organisms. Metallocluster enzymes are one of the most ubiquitous family of enzymes involved in natural product biosynthesis and are of great biotechnological importance. However, the functional expression of recombinant metallocluster enzymes in live cells is often challenging and represents a major bottleneck. The activity of metallocluster enzymes requires essential supporting pathways, involved in protein maturation, electron supply, and/or enzyme stability. Proper function of these supporting pathways involves specific protein-protein interactions that remain poorly characterized and are often overlooked by traditional synthetic biology approaches. Consequently, engineering approaches that focus on enzymatic expression and carbon flux alone often overlook the particular needs of metallocluster enzymes. This review highlights the biotechnological relevance of metallocluster enzymes and discusses novel synthetic biology strategies to advance their industrial application, with a particular focus on iron-sulfur cluster enzymes. Strategies to enable functional heterologous expression and enhance recombinant metallocluster enzyme activity in industrial hosts include: (1) optimizing specific maturation pathways; (2) improving catalytic stability; and (3) enhancing electron transfer. In addition, we suggest future directions for developing microbial cell factories that rely on metallocluster enzyme catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Shomar
- INSERM U722, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Paris, Site Xavier Bichat, 75018 Paris, France
- Correspondence: (H.S.); (G.B.)
| | - Gregory Bokinsky
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (H.S.); (G.B.)
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