Feed to fork risk assessment of mycotoxins under climate change influences - recent developments

Prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in bovine feed and feed components: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi and identified as contaminants in animal feed. They have potentially harmful effects, including carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and repro-toxicity in animals and humans. As a result of climate change, there is the potential for a change in the prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in animal feed components. This necessitates an assessment of the present and emerging threats to the food supply chain from mycotoxins. This systematic review and meta-analysis study synthesised studies on mycotoxin contamination and prevalence in cattle feed components. The studies were collected from scientific databases Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and Embase between 2011 and 2022. The meta-analysis synthesised 97 studies on the prevalence and the concentration of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisin and T-2/HT-2 toxins in feed components. Aflatoxin was highly prevalent (59 %), with a concentration of 2.58-3.92 μg kg-1 in feed components. Ochratoxin A had a global prevalence of 31 % with a concentration of 5.56-12.41 μg kg-1. Deoxynivalenol had a global concentration of 233.17-327.73 μg kg-1 and a prevalence of 74 %. Zearalenone had a prevalence of 70 % and a concentration of 42.47-66.19 μg kg-1. The concentration and prevalence of fumonisins was 232.19-393.07 μg kg-1 and 65 %, respectively. The prevalence and concentration of T-2/HT-2 toxins were 45 % and 23.54-35.12 μg kg-1, respectively. The synthesised concentration of the mycotoxins in the overall feed components was lower than the regulated and guidance values set by the European Union. However, in a few cases, the 95th percentile exceeded these concentration values due to high levels of uncertainty attributed to lower sample size, and thus, need to be considered while conducting risk assessments. The study highlights climates and regions likely to be conducive to the emergence of mycotoxin risk, especially considering the potential influences of climate change.

Mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination in wheat grains

Environmental factors significantly impact grain mycobiome assembly and mycotoxin contamination. However, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the wheat mycobiome and the role of fungal communities in the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxins. In this study, we collected wheat grain samples from 12 major wheat-producing provinces in China during both the harvest and storage periods. Our aim was to evaluate the mycobiomes in wheat samples with varying deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination levels and to confirm the correlation between environmental factors, the wheat mycobiome, and mycotoxins. The results revealed significant differences in the wheat mycobiome and co-occurrence network between contaminated and uncontaminated wheat samples. Fusarium was identified as the main differential taxon responsible for inducing DON contamination in wheat. Correlation analysis identified key factors affecting mycotoxin contamination. The results indicate that both environmental factors and the wheat mycobiome play significant roles in the production and accumulation of DON. Environmental factors can affect the wheat mycobiome assembly, and wheat mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination. Furthermore, a random forest (RF) model was developed using key biological indicators and environmental features to predict DON contamination in wheat with accuracies exceeding 90 %. The findings provide data support for the accurate prediction of mycotoxin contamination and lay the foundation for the research on biological control technologies of mycotoxin through the assembly of synthetic microbial communities.

A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: Toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches

Mycotoxins, harmful compounds produced by fungal pathogens, pose a severe threat to food safety and consumer health. Some commonly produced mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and patulin have serious health implications in humans and animals. Mycotoxin contamination is particularly concerning in regions heavily reliant on staple foods like grains, cereals, and nuts. Preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for a sustainable food supply. Chromatographic methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS), are commonly used to detect mycotoxins; however, there is a need for on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods. Currently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection. Meanwhile, preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for food safety and a sustainable food supply. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches have been used to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production. However, new strains resistant to conventional methods have led to the exploration of novel strategies like cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) technology, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils (NEOs). This paper reviews recent scientific research on mycotoxin toxicity, explores advancements in detecting mycotoxins in various foods, and evaluates the effectiveness of innovative mitigation strategies for controlling and detoxifying mycotoxins.

Advancing Mycotoxin Detection in Food and Feed: Novel Insights from Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

The implementation of low-cost and rapid technologies for the on-site detection of mycotoxin-contaminated crops is a promising solution to address the growing concerns of the agri-food industry. Recently, there have been significant developments in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for the direct detection of mycotoxins in food and feed. This review provides an overview of the most recent advancements in the utilization of SERS through the successful fabrication of novel nanostructured materials. Various bottom-up and top-down approaches have demonstrated their potential in improving sensitivity, while many applications exploit the immobilization of recognition elements and molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs) to enhance specificity and reproducibility in complex matrices. Therefore, the design and fabrication of nanomaterials is of utmost importance and are presented herein. This paper uncovers that limited studies establish detection limits or conduct validation using naturally contaminated samples. One decade on, SERS is still lacking significant progress and there is a disconnect between the technology, the European regulatory limits, and the intended end-user. Ongoing challenges and potential solutions are discussed including nanofabrication, molecular binders, and data analytics. Recommendations to assay design, portability, and substrate stability are made to help improve the potential and feasibility of SERS for future on-site agri-food applications.

Innovative analytical methodologies for characterizing chemical exposure with a view to next-generation risk assessment

The chemical burden on the environment and human population is increasing. Consequently, regulatory risk assessment must keep pace to manage, reduce, and prevent adverse impacts on human and environmental health associated with hazardous chemicals. Surveillance of chemicals of known, emerging, or potential future concern, entering the environment-food-human continuum is needed to document the reality of risks posed by chemicals on ecosystem and human health from a one health perspective, feed into early warning systems and support public policies for exposure mitigation provisions and safe and sustainable by design strategies. The use of less-conventional sampling strategies and integration of full-scan, high-resolution mass spectrometry and effect-directed analysis in environmental and human monitoring programmes have the potential to enhance the screening and identification of a wider range of chemicals of known, emerging or potential future concern. Here, we outline the key needs and recommendations identified within the European Partnership for Assessment of Risks from Chemicals (PARC) project for leveraging these innovative methodologies to support the development of next-generation chemical risk assessment.

Quantitative risk ranking of mycotoxins in milk under climate change scenarios

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal metabolites that may occur in crops. Mycotoxins may carry-over into bovine milk if bovines ingest mycotoxin-contaminated feed. Due to climate change, there may be a potential increase in the prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in crops. However, the toxicity to humans and the carry-over rate of mycotoxins from feed to milk from bovines varies considerably. This research aimed to rank emerging and existing mycotoxins under different climate change scenarios based on their occurrence in milk and their toxicity to humans. The quantitative risk ranking took a probabilistic approach, using Monte-Carlo simulation to take account of input uncertainties and variabilities. Mycotoxins were ranked based on their hazard quotient, calculated using estimated daily intake and tolerable daily intake values. Four climate change scenarios were assessed, including an Irish baseline model in addition to best-case, worst-case, and most likely scenarios, corresponding to equivalent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios. This research prioritised aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, and T-2 and HT-2 toxin as potential human health hazards for adults and children compared to other mycotoxins under all scenarios. Relatively lower risks were found to be associated with mycophenolic acid, enniatins, and deoxynivalenol. Overall, the carry-over rate of mycotoxins, the milk consumption, and the concentration of mycotoxins in silage, maize, and wheat were found to be the most sensitive parameters (positively correlated) of this probabilistic model. Though climate change may impact mycotoxin prevalence and concentration in crops, the carry-over rate notably affects the final concentration of mycotoxin in milk to a greater extent. The results obtained in this study facilitate the identification of risk reduction measures to limit mycotoxin contamination of dairy products, considering potential climate change influences.

Biotransformation of zearalenone to non-estrogenic compounds with two novel recombinant lactonases from Gliocladium

BACKGROUND

The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) produced by toxigenic fungi is widely present in cereals and its downstream products. The danger of ZEA linked to various human health issues has attracted increasing attention. Thus, powerful ZEA-degrading or detoxifying strategies are urgently needed. Biology-based detoxification methods are specific, efficient, and environmentally friendly and do not lead to negative effects during cereal decontamination. Among these, ZEA detoxification using degrading enzymes was documented to be a promising strategy in broad research. Here, two efficient ZEA-degrading lactonases from the genus Gliocladium, ZHDR52 and ZHDP83, were identified for the first time. This work studied the degradation capacity and properties of ZEA using purified recombinant ZHDR52 and ZHDP83.

RESULTS

According to the ZEA degradation study, transformed Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) PLySs cells harboring the zhdr52 or zhdp83 gene could transform 20 µg/mL ZEA within 2 h and degrade > 90% of ZEA toxic derivatives, α/β-zearalanol and α/β-zearalenol, within 6 h. Biochemical analysis demonstrated that the optimal pH was 9.0 for ZHDR52 and ZHDP83, and the optimum temperature was 45 °C. The purified recombinant ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 retained > 90% activity over a wide range of pH values and temperatures (pH 7.0-10.0 and 35-50 °C). In addition, the specific activities of purified ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 against ZEA were 196.11 and 229.64 U/mg, respectively. The results of these two novel lactonases suggested that, compared with ZHD101, these two novel lactonases transformed ZEA into different products. The slight position variations in E126 and H242 in ZDHR52/ZEA and ZHDP83/ZEA obtained via structural modelling may explain the difference in degradation products. Moreover, the MCF-7 cell proliferation assay indicated that the products of ZEA degradation using ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 did not exhibit estrogenic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

ZHDR52 and ZHDP83 are alkali ZEA-degrading enzymes that can efficiently and irreversibly degrade ZEA into non-estrogenic products, indicating that they are potential candidates for commercial application. This study identified two excellent lactonases for industrial ZEA detoxification.

A data-driven approach for prioritising microbial and chemical hazards associated with dairy products using open-source databases

This study presents a data-driven approach for classifying food safety alerts related to chemical and microbial contaminants in dairy products using the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) and the World Health Organization (WHO)'s Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) food contaminants databases. This research aimed to prioritise microbial and chemical hazards based on their presence and severity through exploratory data analysis and to classify the severity of chemical hazards using machine learning (ML) approaches. It identified Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus cereus, Clostridium spp., and Cronobacter sakazakii as the microbial hazards of priority in dairy products. The study also prioritised the top ten chemical hazards based on their presence and severity. These hazards include nitrate, nitrite, ergocornine, 3-MCPD ester, lead, arsenic, ochratoxin A, cadmium, mercury, and aflatoxin (G1, B1, G2, B2, G5 and M1). Using ML techniques, the accuracy rate of classifying food safety alerts as either 'serious' or 'non-serious' was up to 98 %. Additionally, the study identified Reference dose (RfD), substance amount, notification type, product, and substance as the most important features affecting the ML models' performance. These ML models (decision trees, random forests, k-nearest neighbors, linear discriminant analysis, and support vector machines) were also validated on an external dataset of RASFF alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products. They achieved an accuracy of up to 95.1 %. The study's findings demonstrate the models' robustness and ability to classify food safety alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products, even on new data. These results can enhance the development of more effective machine-learning models for classifying food safety alerts related to chemical contaminants in dairy products, highlighting the importance of developing accurate and efficient classification models for timely intervention.

Hazards reported on food of plant origin in the Rapid Alert System for Foodand Feed (RASFF) from 1997 to 2021 and their occurrence, prevention and reduction

Between 1997 and 2021 notifications for foods of plant origin covered 44.6% of all notifications in the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). A two-way joining cluster analysis for notifications on plants reported in the RASFF in 1997-2021 was carried out. The following variables were considered: hazard, product category and country of origin in relation to year of notification. In the period studied mainly mycotoxins, pesticide residues and pathogenic micro-organisms were reported. The most frequently notified product categories were nuts and seeds, fruit and vegetables and herbs and spices. The submitted products originated from Asian, African and South-American countries. The study findings were followed by a literature analysis outlining the occurrence and prevention and reduction possibilities of the mentioned hazards, which can be used in these countries. Attention was drawn to the need to carry out controls at EU border inspection posts, monitor and update hazard limits and improve the rapid exchange of information and response to detected hazards.

Recent advances in biosynthesis of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes and their applications in food and feed

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi in food and feed, which can cause serious health problems. Bioenzymatic degradation is gaining increasing popularity due to its high specificity, gentle degradation conditions, and environmental friendliness. We reviewed recently reported biosynthetic mycotoxin-degrading enzymes, traditional and novel expression systems, enzyme optimization strategies, food and feed applications, safety evaluation of both degrading enzymes and degradation products, and commercialization potentials. Special emphasis is given to the novel expression systems, advanced optimization strategies, and safety considerations for industrial use. Over ten types of recombinases such as oxidoreductase and hydrolase have been studied in the enzymatic hydrolysis of mycotoxins. Besides traditional expression system of Escherichia coli and yeasts, these enzymes can also be expressed in novel systems such as Bacillus subtilis and lactic acid bacteria. To meet the requirements of industrial applications in terms of degradation efficacy and stability, genetic engineering and computational tools are used to optimize enzymatic expression. Currently, registration and technical difficulties have restricted commercial application of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes. To overcome these obstacles, systematic safety evaluation of both biosynthetic enzymes and their degradation products, in-depth understanding of degradation mechanisms and a comprehensive evaluation of their impact on food and feed quality are urgently needed.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

Mycotoxin Contamination Status of Cereals in China and Potential Microbial Decontamination Methods

The presence of mycotoxins in cereals can pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. China is one of the countries that is facing cereal contamination by mycotoxins. Treating mycotoxin-contaminated cereals with established physical and chemical methods can lead to negative effects, such as the loss of nutrients, chemical residues, and high energy consumption. Therefore, microbial detoxification techniques are being considered for reducing and treating mycotoxins in cereals. This paper reviews the contamination of aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A in major cereals (rice, wheat, and maize). Our discussion is based on 8700 samples from 30 provincial areas in China between 2005 and 2021. Previous research suggests that the temperature and humidity in the highly contaminated Chinese cereal-growing regions match the growth conditions of potential antagonists. Therefore, this review takes biological detoxification as the starting point and summarizes the methods of microbial detoxification, microbial active substance detoxification, and other microbial inhibition methods for treating contaminated cereals. Furthermore, their respective mechanisms are systematically analyzed, and a series of strategies for combining the above methods with the treatment of contaminated cereals in China are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide a reference for subsequent solutions to cereal contamination problems and for the development of safer and more efficient methods of biological detoxification.

Approaches for a more microbiologically and chemically safe dried fruit supply chain

Global production of dried fruits has increased significantly in the past decade. Both the increased consumer acceptance of nutritious packaged food and the broad use of dried fruits in products such as confectionery and bakery goods have fueled the dried fruit demand. Unfortunately, outbreaks and recalls due to contamination by pathogenic bacteria and viruses as well as the detection of mycotoxins highlight the need for optimizing current approaches, and evaluating and adopting newer interventions to protect the microbial and chemical safety of dried fruits. Drying processes alone are inadequate to control these hazards. Pre- and post-drying treatments serve as promising opportunities, with or without combination with the drying step, to achieve the goals of efficient hazard control.

Quantification and classification of deoxynivalenol-contaminated oat samples by near-infrared hyperspectral imaging

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most occurring mycotoxin in oat and oat-based products. Near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) has been proposed as a promising methodology for analysing DON contamination in the food industry. The present study aims to apply NIR-HSI for DON detection in oat kernels and to quantify and classify naturally DON-contaminated oat samples. Unground and ground oat samples were scanned by NIR-HSI before their DON content was determined by HPLC. The data were pre-treated and analysed by PLS regression and four classification methods. The most efficient DON prediction model was for unground samples (R² = 0.75 and RMSEP = 403.18 μg/kg), using twelve characteristic wavelengths with a special interest in 1203 and 1388 nm. The random forest algorithm of unground samples according to the EU maximum limit for unprocessed oats (1750 μg/kg) achieved a classification accuracy of 77.8 %. These findings indicate that NIR-HSI is a promising tool for detecting DON in oats.

Mutual effects on mycotoxin production during co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains

Mycotoxin co-occurrence compromises the safety of food crops worldwide. Environmental factors, as well as fungal interaction, can substantially influence the infectivity of mycotoxigenic fungi and their subsequent production of multi-mycotoxin. Here, we investigated the mutual effects of the co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains on the co-production of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Single cultures of ochratoxigenic A. carbonarius and A. alliaceus grew optimally at 25 °C, whereas aflatoxigenic A. flavus grew optimally at 35 °C. The maximum levels of OTA and AFB1 were achieved at 25 °C, whereas mycotoxin production decreased at 35 °C. During competitive growth of the ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic isolates, inhibition or stimulation of mycotoxin production was dependent on the fungal strain, temperature, and the ratio of the spore concentration. Aspergillus carbonarius and A. alliaceus generally produced OTA, with similar patterns of relative OTA levels at all temperatures. AFB1 production by A. flavus in the presence of ochratoxigenic Aspergillus species was inhibited at 25 °C and stimulated at 35 °C. These results indicated that the temperature, presence of other mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species, and ratio of the initial spore concentration significantly contributed to the co-production of OTA and AFB1.

Mycotoxicological monitoring of feed and its role in prevention of animal mycotoxicoses

Mycotoxins can accumulate in raw materials of plant origin at different technological stages of its production. Most often, the producers of mycotoxins are fungi of the genera Aspergillus , Fusarium , Penicillium and some others. The clinical symptoms of mycotoxicoses vary significantly, and lethal outcomes are possible. For this reason, the mycotoxicological study of various types of feed under production conditions is an indispensable component of veterinary support of industrial animal husbandry. As part of this study, a retrospective analysis of the results of a mycotoxicological study of feed for different animal species was carried out in the Omsk region in 2017-2021. All feeds received by the Omsk Regional Veterinary Laboratory for 5 years for the determination of mycotoxins were examined for the presence of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, aflatoxin B 1, deoxynivalenol. It was established that almost 70 % of the studied samples contained mycotoxins, including their maximum allowable level was exceeded in 74 samples. Exceeding the permissible levels was noted for the content of T-2 toxin (34 samples), zearalenone (27 samples), ochratoxin A (6 samples), aflatoxin B 1 (4 samples) and deoxynivalenol (3 samples). The largest number of cases of contamination was recorded in the study of feed and feed mixtures. The greatest danger is the multiple contamination of feed with mycotoxins. This increases the risk of developing comorbid conditions and the spread of opportunistic infections.

Time- and Dose-Dependent Effects of Dietary Deoxynivalenol (DON) in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at Organism and Tissue Level

This study with juvenile rainbow trout evaluated the effects of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) at industrially relevant doses (up to 1.6 mg/kg) on growth performance, the liver, and the gastrointestinal tract. Fifteen groups of 30 fish each were given one of five dietary treatments in triplicate: (1) control diet (CON; DON < 100 µg/kg feed), (2) naturally DON-contaminated diet (ND1) with a DON content of 700 µg/kg in the feed, (3) ND2 with a DON content of 1200 µg/kg feed, (4) a pure DON-contaminated diet (PD1) with 800 µg/kg of DON in the feed, and (5) PD2 with DON at a concentration of 1600 µg/kg in the feed. The feeding trial lasted eight weeks: six weeks of restrictive feeding followed by two weeks of ad libitum feeding. Exposure to DON during restrictive feeding for six weeks did not affect the growth performance of trout but did lead to a reduction in retained protein in fish fed with higher doses of DON in the ND2 and PD2 groups. During the two following weeks of ad libitum feeding, feed intake was similar among all groups, but body weight gain was lower in the ND2 and PD2 groups and feed efficiency was higher in PD2 (week 8). Histopathological assessment revealed liver damage, including altered nuclear characteristics and haemorrhages, in groups fed higher doses of natural DON (ND2) after just one week of restrictive feeding. Liver damage (necrosis and haemorrhage presence in ND2) was alleviated over time (week 6) but was again aggravated after ad libitum exposure (week 8). In contrast, gastrointestinal tract damage was generally mild with only a few histopathological alterations, and the absence of an inflammatory cytokine response was demonstrated by PCR at week 8. In conclusion, ad libitum dietary exposure of rainbow trout to either natural or pure DON resulted in reduced growth (dose-dependent), while restrictive exposure revealed time-dependent effects of natural DON in terms of liver damage.

Immunoaffinity Plastic Blade Spray Mass Spectrometry for Rapid Confirmatory Analysis of Food Contaminants

The lack of chromatographic separation in ambient and direct mass spectrometry (MS) ionization techniques jeopardizes the overall selectivity of the developed methods. Incorporating a biosensing element at the ionization source could compensate for that inherent lack of selectivity. Thus, a simplified immunoaffinity-direct MS technique was developed, immunoaffinity blade spray (iBS), featuring a conductive polystyrene blade material. In iBS, the generic coating used in conventional coated blade spray is replaced with a layer of highly specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), while the stainless steel is replaced with conductive polystyrene to allow for simple ELISA platelike hydrophobic immobilization of mAbs. Because of its high relevance for climate change-induced food safety issues, the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) was chosen as a model substance. Following a rapid extraction from wheat flour, DON is immuno-captured, and the blade is positioned in front of the MS for direct iBS-MS/MS analysis. The method's applicability was demonstrated by analyzing spiked and incurred wheat flour samples, omitting the need for time-consuming chromatographic separation. Apart from DON, cross-reacting DON conjugates could be successfully analyzed as well. The direct iBS-MS/MS method is generic and adaptable to detecting any analyte in sample extracts, provided that specific mAbs are available.

Infected grasses as inoculum for Fusarium infestation and mycotoxin accumulation in wheat with and without irrigation

Grasses growing next to agricultural fields influence the Fusarium abundance, the species composition, and the mycotoxin accumulation of wheat plants, especially the field parts directly adjacent to grasses, are highly affected. Grasses are a more attractive and suitable habitat for Fusarium fungi compared to other arable weeds and occur at mostly every semi-natural landscape element (e.g., kettle holes, hedgerows, field-to-field-borders). In our study, we analyzed the ability of a highly Fusarium infected grass stripe (F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. sporotrichioides) to infect an adjacent wheat field with these species. Results show that the primary inoculated Fusarium species were as well the dominant species isolated from the wheat field. Regarding transects originating from the grass stripe going into the field, the results demonstrate that wheat ears next to the infected grass stripe have a higher Fusarium abundance and furthermore show higher mycotoxin accumulation in the wheat kernels. This effect was highly promoted by irrigation. Therefore, grass stripes next to arable fields must be considered as reservoirs for fungal infections and as a source for a contamination with mycotoxins.

Effect of using mycotoxin-detoxifying agents in dairy cattle feed on natural whey starter biodiversity

Natural whey cultures (NWC) are undefined multiple-strain bacterial starter communities that can be affected by even small changes along the entire dairy chain. We applied a multidisciplinary approach to investigate how the addition of 2 mycotoxin-detoxifying agents [sodium smectite and lignocellulose-based material (B1); leonardite and betaine (B2)] to cow diets modified the microbiota of the NWC in manufacture of a Grana-like cheese. Microbiological and flow cytometry analyses showed that the content and viability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and the total whey microbiota were not affected by the detoxifying agents, and Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus helveticus, and Limosilactobacillus fermentum were the dominant taxa. Random amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR fingerprinting and metagenomic analysis highlighted differences in the bacterial community of the NWC and in the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes that increased when B1 and B2 were included in the diet. Two of 6 St. thermophilus biotypes were detected only in control samples; conversely, none of the Lb. helveticus biotypes found in control samples were isolated from B1 and B2. In vitro tests showed that the 2 binders did not significantly affect the development of St. thermophilus, but they stimulated the growth of Lb. helveticus strains recovered only from B1 and B2 NWC. The addition of binders in cow feed can affect the LAB biotypes present in NWC.

Climate Change and Effects on Molds and Mycotoxins

Earth’s climate is undergoing adverse global changes as an unequivocal result of anthropogenic activity. The occurring environmental changes are slowly shaping the balance between plant growth and related fungal diseases. Climate (temperature, available water, and light quality/quantity; as well as extreme drought, desertification, and fluctuations of humid/dry cycles) represents the most important agroecosystem factor influencing the life cycle stages of fungi and their ability to colonize crops, survive, and produce toxins. The ability of mycotoxigenic fungi to respond to Climate Change (CC) may induce a shift in their geographical distribution and in the pattern of mycotoxin occurrence. The present review examines the available evidence on the impact of CC factors on growth and mycotoxin production by the key mycotoxigenic fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, which include several species producing mycotoxins of the greatest concern worldwide: aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxins, and fumonisins (FUMs).

Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.