A call to action for the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes

Genotype-phenotype correlations within the Geodermatophilaceae

The integration of genomic information into microbial systematics along with physiological and chemotaxonomic parameters provides for a reliable classification of prokaryotes. In silico analysis of chemotaxonomic traits is now being introduced to replace characteristics traditionally determined in the laboratory with the dual goal of both increasing the speed of the description of taxa and the accuracy and consistency of taxonomic reports. Genomics has already successfully been applied in the taxonomic rearrangement of Geodermatophilaceae (Actinomycetota) but in the light of new genomic data the taxonomy of the family needs to be revisited. In conjunction with the taxonomic characterisation of four strains phylogenetically located within the family, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the whole proteomes of the sequenced type strains and established genotype-phenotype correlations for traits related to chemotaxonomy, cell morphology and metabolism. Results indicated that the four isolates under study represent four novel species within the genus Blastococcus. Additionally, the genera Blastococcus, Geodermatophilus and Modestobacter were shown to be paraphyletic. Consequently, the new genera Trujillonella, Pleomorpha and Goekera were proposed within the Geodermatophilaceae and Blastococcus endophyticus was reclassified as Trujillonella endophytica comb. nov., Geodermatophilus daqingensis as Pleomorpha daqingensis comb. nov. and Modestobacter deserti as Goekera deserti comb. nov. Accordingly, we also proposed emended descriptions of Blastococcus aggregatus, Blastococcus jejuensis, Blastococcus saxobsidens and Blastococcus xanthilyniticus. In silico chemotaxonomic results were overall consistent with wet-lab results. Even though in silico discriminatory levels varied depending on the respective chemotaxonomic trait, this approach is promising for effectively replacing and/or complementing chemotaxonomic analyses at taxonomic ranks above the species level. Finally, interesting but previously overlooked insights regarding morphology and ecology were revealed by the presence of a repertoire of genes related to flagellum synthesis, chemotaxis, spore production and pilus assembly in all representatives of the family. A rich carbon metabolism including four different CO2 fixation pathways and a battery of enzymes able to degrade complex carbohydrates were also identified in Blastococcus genomes.

Out with the old and in with the new: time to rethink twentieth century chemotaxonomic practices in bacterial taxonomy

Chemotaxonomic methods played an important role in the development of the polyphasic approach to classification of Archaea and Bacteria. However, we here argue that routine application of these methods is unnecessary in an era when genomic data are available and sufficient for species delineation. Thus, authors who choose not to utilize such methods should not be forced to do so during the peer review and editorial handling of manuscripts describing novel species. Instead, we argue that chemotaxonomy will thrive if improved analytical methods are introduced and deployed, primarily by specialist laboratories, in studies at taxonomic levels above the characterisation of novel species.

Distinction between Borrelia and Borreliella is more robustly supported by molecular and phenotypic characteristics than all other neighbouring prokaryotic genera: Response to Margos' et al. "The genus Borrelia reloaded" (PLoS ONE 13(12): e0208432)

In a recent publication in PLOS ONE, Gabriele Margos and colleagues have questioned the division of the genus Borrelia into two genera on the basis that the differences in percentage of conserved proteins (POCP) between these two groups is >50%, which an earlier study has suggested as the threshold for differentiating prokaryotic genera. However, the POCP threshold is a poorly characterized and rarely used criterion for establishing distinction among prokaryotic genera. Detailed evaluation of the intergeneric POCP values for 37 genera from 3 different families (viz. Enterobacteriaceae- 24 genera, Morganellaceae-8 genera and Cystobacteraceae-5 genera) presented here shows that the POCP values for all genera within each of these families exceeded >58%. Thus, the suggested POCP threshold is not a useful criterion for delimitation of genus boundary and the objection by Margos et al. on this ground is invalid. Additionally, Margos et al. have questioned the specificities of ~15–20% of the conserved signature indels (CSIs) described in our work. However, as shown here, this concern is due to misunderstanding of the results and the CSIs in question are still highly-specific characteristics of the members of these genera and they provide important information regarding the evolutionary relationships of two new reptiles-echidna-related species viz. Borrelia turcica and Candidatus Borrelia tachyglossi to other Borrelia species. Results presented here show that both these species are deeper-branching members of the genus Borrelia and their placement within this genus is strongly supported by phylogenetic analyses and multiple uniquely shared CSIs with the other Borrelia species. Based on the large body of evidence derived from phylogenetic, genomic, molecular, phenotypic and clinical features, it is contended that the characteristics clearly distinguishing the Borrelia and Borreliella genera are far more numerous and of different kinds than those discerning most (all) other neighbouring genera of prokaryotes. Thus, the placement of these two groups of microorganisms into distinct genera, Borrelia and Borreliella, which clearly recognizes the differences among them, is highly appropriate and it should lead to a better understanding of the clinical, molecular and biological differences between these two important groups of microbes.

Minimal standards for the description of new genera and species of rhizobia and agrobacteria

Herein the members of the Subcommittee on Taxonomy of Rhizobia and Agrobacteria of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes review recent developments in rhizobial and agrobacterial taxonomy and propose updated minimal standards for the description of new species (and genera) in these groups. The essential requirements (minimal standards) for description of a new species are (1) a genome sequence of at least the proposed type strain and (2) evidence for differentiation from other species based on genome sequence comparisons. It is also recommended that (3) genetic variation within the species is documented with sequence data from several clearly different strains and (4) phenotypic features are described, and their variation documented with data from a relevant set of representative strains. Furthermore, it is encouraged that information is provided on (5) nodulation or pathogenicity phenotypes, as appropriate, with relevant gene sequences. These guidelines supplement the current rules of general bacterial taxonomy, which require (6) a name that conforms to the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, (7) validation of the name by publication either directly in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology or in a validation list when published elsewhere, and (8) deposition of the type strain in two international culture collections in separate countries.

Defining the Species Micromonospora saelicesensis and Micromonospora noduli Under the Framework of Genomics

The type isolates of species Micromonospora saelicesensis and Micromonospora noduli are Gram-stain positive actinobacteria that were originally isolated from nitrogen fixing nodules of the legumes Lupinus angustifolius and Pisum sativum, respectively. These two species are very closely related and questions arise as to whether they should be merged into a single species. To better delineate the relationship of M. saelicesensis and M. noduli, 10 strains isolated from plant tissue (nodules and leaves) and identified by their 16S rRNA gene sequences as either M. saelicensesis or M. noduli, based on a cut-off value of ≥99.5% were selected for whole-genome sequencing and compared with the type strains of M. saelicesensis Lupac 09^T and M. noduli GUI43^T using overall genome relatedness indices (OGRI) which included ANI, OrthoANI and digital DNA-DNA hybridization. Whole- and core-genome phylogenomic analyses were also carried out. These results were compared with the topologies of the 16S rRNA and gyrB gene phylogenies. Good correlation was found between all trees except for the 16S rRNA gene. Overall results also supported the current classification of M. saelicesensis and M. noduli as separate species. Especially useful was the core-genome phylogenetic analyses based on 92 genes and the dDDH results which were highly correlated. The importance of using more than one strain for a better definition of a species was also shown. A series of in vitro phenotypic assays performed at different times were compared with in silico predictions based on genomic data. In vitro phenotypic tests showed discrepancies among the independent studies, confirming the lack of reproducibility even when tests were performed in the same laboratory. On the other hand, the use of in silico predictions proved useful for defining a stable phenotype profile among the strains analyzed. These results provide a working framework for defining Micromonospora species at the genomic and phenotypic level.

Phylogeny Trumps Chemotaxonomy: A Case Study Involving Turicella otitidis

The genus Turicella was proposed to harbor clinical strains isolated from middle-ear fluids of patients with otitis media. 16S rRNA phylogeny showed that it belonged to the mycolic acid-containing actinobacteria, currently classified in the order Corynebacteriales, and was closely related to the genus Corynebacterium. A new genus was proposed for the organisms as unlike corynebacteria they lacked mycolic acids and had different menaquinones. Here, we carried out large-scale comparative genomics on representative strains of the genera Corynebacterium and Turicella to check if this chemotaxonomic classification is justified. Three genes that are known to play an essential role in mycolic acid biosynthesis were absent in Turicella and two other mycolate-less Corynebacterium spp., explaining the lack of mycolic acids resulted from the deletion of genes and does not confer any phylogenetic context. Polyphasic phylogenetic analyses using 16S rRNA, bacterial core genes and genes responsible for synthesizing menaquinones unequivocally indicate that Turicella is a true member of the genus Corynebacterium. Here, we demonstrate that menaquinone and mycolic acid that have been used as critical taxonomic markers should be interpreted carefully, particularly when genome-based taxonomy is readily available. Based on the phylogenetic analysis, we propose to reclassify Turicella otitidis as Corynebacterium otitidis comb. nov.

Ecogenomics and Taxonomy of Cyanobacteria Phylum

Cyanobacteria are major contributors to global biogeochemical cycles. The genetic diversity among Cyanobacteria enables them to thrive across many habitats, although only a few studies have analyzed the association of phylogenomic clades to specific environmental niches. In this study, we adopted an ecogenomics strategy with the aim to delineate ecological niche preferences of Cyanobacteria and integrate them to the genomic taxonomy of these bacteria. First, an appropriate phylogenomic framework was established using a set of genomic taxonomy signatures (including a tree based on conserved gene sequences, genome-to-genome distance, and average amino acid identity) to analyse ninety-nine publicly available cyanobacterial genomes. Next, the relative abundances of these genomes were determined throughout diverse global marine and freshwater ecosystems, using metagenomic data sets. The whole-genome-based taxonomy of the ninety-nine genomes allowed us to identify 57 (of which 28 are new genera) and 87 (of which 32 are new species) different cyanobacterial genera and species, respectively. The ecogenomic analysis allowed the distinction of three major ecological groups of Cyanobacteria (named as i. Low Temperature; ii. Low Temperature Copiotroph; and iii. High Temperature Oligotroph) that were coherently linked to the genomic taxonomy. This work establishes a new taxonomic framework for Cyanobacteria in the light of genomic taxonomy and ecogenomic approaches.

Impact of genomics on the understanding of microbial evolution and classification: the importance of Darwin's views on classification

Analyses of genome sequences, by some approaches, suggest that the widespread occurrence of horizontal gene transfers (HGTs) in prokaryotes disguises their evolutionary relationships and have led to questioning of the Darwinian model of evolution for prokaryotes. These inferences are critically examined in the light of comparative genome analysis, characteristic synapomorphies, phylogenetic trees and Darwin's views on examining evolutionary relationships. Genome sequences are enabling discovery of numerous molecular markers (synapomorphies) such as conserved signature indels (CSIs) and conserved signature proteins (CSPs), which are distinctive characteristics of different prokaryotic taxa. Based on these molecular markers, exhibiting high degree of specificity and predictive ability, numerous prokaryotic taxa of different ranks, currently identified based on the 16S rRNA gene trees, can now be reliably demarcated in molecular terms. Within all studied groups, multiple CSIs and CSPs have been identified for successive nested clades providing reliable information regarding their hierarchical relationships and these inferences are not affected by HGTs. These results strongly support Darwin's views on evolution and classification and supplement the current phylogenetic framework based on 16S rRNA in important respects. The identified molecular markers provide important means for developing novel diagnostics, therapeutics and for functional studies providing important insights regarding prokaryotic taxa.

Phylogenomic Study of Burkholderia glathei-like Organisms, Proposal of 13 Novel Burkholderia Species and Emended Descriptions of Burkholderia sordidicola, Burkholderia zhejiangensis, and Burkholderia grimmiae

Partial gyrB gene sequence analysis of 17 isolates from human and environmental sources revealed 13 clusters of strains and identified them as Burkholderia glathei clade (BGC) bacteria. The taxonomic status of these clusters was examined by whole-genome sequence analysis, determination of the G+C content, whole-cell fatty acid analysis and biochemical characterization. The whole-genome sequence-based phylogeny was assessed using the Genome Blast Distance Phylogeny (GBDP) method and an extended multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) approach. The results demonstrated that these 17 BGC isolates represented 13 novel Burkholderia species that could be distinguished by both genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. BGC strains exhibited a broad metabolic versatility and developed beneficial, symbiotic, and pathogenic interactions with different hosts. Our data also confirmed that there is no phylogenetic subdivision in the genus Burkholderia that distinguishes beneficial from pathogenic strains. We therefore propose to formally classify the 13 novel BGC Burkholderia species as Burkholderia arvi sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29317^T = CCUG 68412^T), Burkholderia hypogeia sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29322^T = CCUG 68407^T), Burkholderia ptereochthonis sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29326^T = CCUG 68403^T), Burkholderia glebae sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29325^T = CCUG 68404^T), Burkholderia pedi sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29323^T = CCUG 68406^T), Burkholderia arationis sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29324^T = CCUG 68405^T), Burkholderia fortuita sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29320^T = CCUG 68409^T), Burkholderia temeraria sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29319^T = CCUG 68410^T), Burkholderia calidae sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29321^T = CCUG 68408^T), Burkholderia concitans sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29315^T = CCUG 68414^T), Burkholderia turbans sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29316^T = CCUG 68413^T), Burkholderia catudaia sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29318^T = CCUG 68411^T) and Burkholderia peredens sp. nov. (type strain LMG 29314^T = CCUG 68415^T). Furthermore, we present emended descriptions of the species Burkholderia sordidicola, Burkholderia zhejiangensis and Burkholderia grimmiae. The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the 16S rRNA and gyrB gene sequences determined in this study are LT158612-LT158624 and LT158625-LT158641, respectively.

Uncultivated thermophiles: current status and spotlight on 'Aigarchaeota'

Meta-analysis of cultivation-independent sequence data shows that geothermal systems host an abundance of novel organisms, representing a vast unexplored phylogenetic and functional diversity among yet-uncultivated thermophiles. A number of thermophiles have recently been interrogated using metagenomic and/or single-cell genomic approaches, including members of taxonomic groups that inhabit both thermal and non-thermal environments, such as 'Acetothermia' (OP1) and 'Atribacteria' (OP9/JS1), as well as the exclusively thermophilic lineages 'Korarchaeota', 'Calescamantes' (EM19), 'Fervidibacteria' (OctSpA1-106), and 'Aigarchaeota' (HWCG-I). The 'Aigarchaeota', a sister lineage to the Thaumarchaeota, likely includes both hyperthermophiles and moderate thermophiles. They inhabit terrestrial, marine, and subsurface thermal environments and comprise at least nine genus-level lineages, several of which are globally distributed.

The changing landscape of microbial biodiversity exploration and its implications for systematics

A vast diversity of Bacteria and Archaea exists in nature that has evaded axenic culture. Advancements in single-cell genomics, metagenomics, and molecular microbial ecology approaches provide ever-improving insight into the biology of this so-called "microbial dark matter"; however, due to the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, yet-uncultivated microorganisms are not accommodated in formal taxonomy regardless of the quantity or quality of data. Meanwhile, efforts to calibrate the existing taxonomy with phylogenetic anchors and genomic data are increasingly robust. The current climate provides an exciting opportunity to leverage rapidly expanding single-cell genomics and metagenomics datasets to improve the taxonomy of Bacteria and Archaea. However, this opportunity must be weighted carefully in light of the strengths and limitations of these approaches. We propose to expand the definition of the Candidatus taxonomy to include taxa, from the phylum level to the species level, that are described genomically, particularly when genomic work is coupled with advanced molecular ecology approaches to probe metabolic functions in situ. This system would preserve the rigor and value of traditional microbial systematics while enabling growth of a provisional taxonomic structure to facilitate communication about "dark" lineages on the tree of life.

Time to revisit polyphasic taxonomy

Although the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria does not specify a working strategy, editors and reviewers of taxonomic journals commonly request a polyphasic taxonomic approach that includes phenotypic, genotypic and chemotaxonomic information for the description of novel bacterial species. Whole genome sequences provide an insight into the genetic nature of microbial species, yield new and superior tools for delineating bacterial species and for studying their phylogeny, and provide a window on an organism's metabolic potential. These new insights and tools are gradually introduced in the polyphasic taxonomic practice. The genus Burkholderia, a controversial group of bacteria with both benign and devastating characteristics, is used as an example to show that the modern practice of polyphasic taxonomy is counterproductive in light of the tremendous number of bacterial species that awaits formal description and naming. Bacterial taxonomists must urgently reconsider how to describe and name novel bacteria in the genomic era, and should consider using a full genome sequence and a minimal description of phenotypic characteristics as a basic, sufficient, cost-effective and appropriate biological identity card for a species description.

A novel taxonomic marker that discriminates between morphologically complex actinomycetes

In the era when large whole genome bacterial datasets are generated routinely, rapid and accurate molecular systematics is becoming increasingly important. However, 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing does not always offer sufficient resolution to discriminate between closely related genera. The SsgA-like proteins are developmental regulatory proteins in sporulating actinomycetes, whereby SsgB actively recruits FtsZ during sporulation-specific cell division. Here, we present a novel method to classify actinomycetes, based on the extraordinary way the SsgA and SsgB proteins are conserved. The almost complete conservation of the SsgB amino acid (aa) sequence between members of the same genus and its high divergence between even closely related genera provides high-quality data for the classification of morphologically complex actinomycetes. Our analysis validates Kitasatospora as a sister genus to Streptomyces in the family Streptomycetaceae and suggests that Micromonospora, Salinispora and Verrucosispora may represent different clades of the same genus. It is also apparent that the aa sequence of SsgA is an accurate determinant for the ability of streptomycetes to produce submerged spores, dividing the phylogenetic tree of streptomycetes into liquid-culture sporulation and no liquid-culture sporulation branches. A new phylogenetic tree of industrially relevant actinomycetes is presented and compared with that based on 16S rRNA sequences.