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Peter C, Krock B, Cembella A. Effects of salinity variation on growth and yessotoxin composition in the marine dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedra from a Skagerrak fjord system (western Sweden). HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 78:9-17. [PMID: 30196929 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedra is a toxigenic species capable of forming high magnitude and occasionally harmful algal blooms (HABs), particularly in temperate coastal waters throughout the world. Three cultured isolates of L. polyedra from a fjord system on the Skagerrak coast of Sweden were analyzed for their growth characteristics and to determine the effects of a strong salinity gradient on toxin cell quotas and composition. The cell quota of yessotoxin (YTX) analogs, as determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), ranged widely among strains. For two strains, the total toxin content remained constant over time in culture, but for the third strain, the YTX cell quota significantly decreased (by 32%) during stationary growth phase. The toxin profiles of the three strains differed markedly and none produced YTX. The analog 41a-homo-YTX (m/z 1155), its putative methylated derivative 9-Me-41a-homo-YTX (m/z 1169) and an unspecified keto-YTX (m/z 1047) were detected in strain LP29-10H, whereas strain LP30-7B contained nor-YTX (m/z 1101), and two unspecified YTX analogs at m/z 1159 and m/z 1061. The toxin profile of strain LP30-8D comprised two unspecified YTX analogs at m/z 1061 and m/z 991 and carboxy-YTX (m/z 1173). Strain LP30-7B cultured at multiple salinities (10, 16, 22, 28 and 34) did not tolerate the lowest salinity (10), but there was a statistically significant decrease (by 21%) in toxin cell quota between growth at the highest versus lower permissible salinities. The toxin profile for strain LP30-7B remained constant over time for a given salinity. At lower salinities, however, the proportion of the unspecified YTX analog (m/z 1061) was significantly higher, especially with respect to nor-YTX (m/z 1101). This study shows high intra-specific variability in yessotoxin composition among strains from the same geographical region and inconsistency in toxin cell quota under different environmental regimes and growth stages in culture. This variation has important implications for the kinetics of YTX production and food web transfer in natural bloom populations from diverse geographical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Peter
- Universität Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
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Korsnes MS, Korsnes R. Single-Cell Tracking of A549 Lung Cancer Cells Exposed to a Marine Toxin Reveals Correlations in Pedigree Tree Profiles. Front Oncol 2018; 8:260. [PMID: 30023341 PMCID: PMC6039982 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2018.00260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term video-based tracking of single A549 lung cancer cells exposed to three different concentrations of the marine toxin yessotoxin (YTX) reveals significant variation in cytotoxicity, and it confirms the potential genotoxic effects of this toxin. Tracking of single cells subject to various toxic exposure, constitutes a conceptually simple approach to elucidate lineage correlations and sub-populations which are masked in cell bulk analyses. The toxic exposure can here be considered as probing a cell population for properties and change which may include long-term adaptation to treatments. Ranking of pedigree trees according to a measure of "size," provides definition of sub-populations. Following single cells through generations indicates that signaling cascades and experience of mother cells can pass to their descendants. Epigenetic factors and signaling downstream lineages may enhance differences between cells and partly explain observed heterogeneity in a population. Signaling downstream lineages can potentially link a variety of observations of cells making resulting data more suitable for computerized treatment. YTX exposure of A549 cells tends to cause two main visually distinguishable classes of cell death modalities ("apoptotic-like" and "necrotic-like") with approximately equal frequency. This special property of YTX enables estimation of correlation between cell death modalities for sister cells indicating impact downstream lineages. Hence, cellular responses and adaptation to treatments might be better described in terms of effects on pedigree trees rather than considering cells as independent entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Suárez Korsnes
- Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway.,Nofima AS, Ås, Norway.,Korsnes Biocomputing (KoBio), Ås, Norway
| | - Reinert Korsnes
- Nofima AS, Ås, Norway.,Korsnes Biocomputing (KoBio), Ås, Norway.,Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), Kjeller, Norway.,Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway
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3
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Subacute immunotoxicity of the marine phycotoxin yessotoxin in rats. Toxicon 2017; 129:74-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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4
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Korsnes MS, Korsnes R. Mitotic Catastrophe in BC3H1 Cells following Yessotoxin Exposure. Front Cell Dev Biol 2017; 5:30. [PMID: 28409150 PMCID: PMC5374163 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine toxin yessotoxin (YTX) can cause various cytotoxic effects depending on cell type and cell line. It is well known to trigger distinct mechanisms for programmed cell death which may overlap or cross-talk. The present contribution provides the first evidence that YTX can cause genotoxicity and induce mitotic catastrophe which can lead to different types of cell death. This work also demonstrates potential information gain from non-intrusive computer-based tracking of many individual cells during long time. Treatment of BC3H1 cells at their exponential growth phase causes atypical nuclear alterations and formation of giant cells with multiple nuclei. These are the most prominent morphological features of mitotic catastrophe. Giant cells undergo slow cell death in a necrosis-like manner. However, apoptotic-like cell death is also observed in these cells. Electron microscopy of treated BC3H1 cells reveal uncondensed chromatin and cells with double nuclei. Activation of p-p53, p-H2AX, p-Chk1, p-ATM, and p-ATR and down-regulation of p-Chk2 indicate DNA damage response and cell cycle deregulation. Micronuclei formation further support this evidence. Data from tracking single cells reveal that YTX treatment suppresses a second round of cell division in BC3H1 cells. These findings suggest that YTX can induce genomic alterations or imperfections in chromosomal segregation leading to permanent mitotic failure. This understanding extends the list of effects from YTX and which are of interest to control cancer and tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Suárez Korsnes
- Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life SciencesÅs, Norway.,Nofima ASÅs, Norway
| | - Reinert Korsnes
- Nofima ASÅs, Norway.,Norwegian Defence Research EstablishmentKjeller, Norway.,Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy ResearchÅs, Norway
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Ferron PJ, Dumazeau K, Beaulieu JF, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Combined Effects of Lipophilic Phycotoxins (Okadaic Acid, Azapsiracid-1 and Yessotoxin) on Human Intestinal Cells Models. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:50. [PMID: 26907345 PMCID: PMC4773803 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8020050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins are monitored in seafood because they can cause food poisonings in humans. Phycotoxins do not only occur singly but also as mixtures in shellfish. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro toxic interactions of binary combinations of three lipophilic phycotoxins commonly found in Europe (okadaic acid (OA), yessotoxin (YTX) and azaspiracid-1 (AZA-1)) using the neutral red uptake assay on two human intestinal cell models, Caco-2 and the human intestinal epithelial crypt-like cells (HIEC). Based on the cytotoxicity of individual toxins, we studied the interactions between toxins in binary mixtures using the combination index-isobologram equation, a method widely used in pharmacology to study drug interactions. This method quantitatively classifies interactions between toxins in mixtures as synergistic, additive or antagonistic. AZA-1/OA, and YTX/OA mixtures showed increasing antagonism with increasing toxin concentrations. In contrast, the AZA-1/YTX mixture showed increasing synergism with increasing concentrations, especially for mixtures with high YTX concentrations. These results highlight the hazard potency of AZA-1/YTX mixtures with regard to seafood intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Jean Ferron
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Kevin Dumazeau
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Jean-François Beaulieu
- Laboratory of Intestinal Physiopathology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1G 0A2, Canada.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
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Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Yessotoxin, a Promising Therapeutic Tool. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14020030. [PMID: 26828502 PMCID: PMC4771983 DOI: 10.3390/md14020030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Yessotoxin (YTX) is a polyether compound produced by dinoflagellates and accumulated in filter feeding shellfish. No records about human intoxications induced by this compound have been published, however it is considered a toxin. Modifications in second messenger levels, protein levels, immune cells, cytoskeleton or activation of different cellular death types have been published as consequence of YTX exposure. This review summarizes the main intracellular pathways modulated by YTX and their pharmacological and therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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Korsnes MS, Kolstad H, Kleiveland CR, Korsnes R, Ørmen E. Autophagic activity in BC3H1 cells exposed to yessotoxin. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 32:166-80. [PMID: 26743762 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
The marine toxin yessotoxin (YTX) can induce programmed cell death through both caspase-dependent and -independent pathways in various cellular systems. It appears to stimulate different forms of cellular stress causing instability among cell death mechanisms and making them overlap and cross-talk. Autophagy is one of the key pathways that can be stimulated by multiple forms of cellular stress which may determine cell survival or death. The present work evaluates a plausible link between ribotoxic stress and autophagic activity in BC3H1 cells treated with YTX. Such treatment produces massive cytoplasmic compartments as well as double-membrane vesicles termed autophagosomes which are typically observed in cells undergoing autophagy. The observed autophagosomes contain a large amount of ribosomes associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Western blotting analysis of Atg proteins and detection of the autophagic markers LC3-II and SQSTM1/p62 by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence verified autophagic activity during YTX-treatment. The present work supports the idea that autophagic activity upon YTX exposure may represent a response to ribotoxic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Suárez Korsnes
- Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) - Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway.
| | - Hilde Kolstad
- Imaging Centre, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) - Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Charlotte Ramstad Kleiveland
- Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) - Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Smerud Medical Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Reinert Korsnes
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway; Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (FFI), Kjeller, Norway
| | - Elin Ørmen
- Imaging Centre, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) - Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway
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Repeated oral co-exposure to yessotoxin and okadaic acid: a short term toxicity study in mice. Toxicon 2013; 76:94-102. [PMID: 24060376 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The polyethers yessotoxin (YTX) and okadaic acid (OA) are two marine algal toxins frequently associated as edible shellfish contaminants. Seafood contamination by these compounds, also at low concentrations and for a long period of time, can increase the possibility of their simultaneous and repeated ingestion, with possible synergistic toxic effects. Thus, in vivo toxicity by repeated oral exposure to a combination of fixed doses of YTX and OA (1 mg YTX/kg and 0.185 mg OA/kg, daily for 7 days) was investigated in mice, in comparison to that of each toxin alone. No mortality, signs of toxicity, diarrhea or hematological changes was induced by the toxins co-administration or by the single toxins. Light microscopy revealed changes at gastric level (multifocal subacute inflammation, erosions and epithelial hyperplasia) in 2/5 mice co-administered with the toxins. In animals dosed only with OA, epithelial hyperplasia of forestomach and slight focal subacute inflammation of its submucosa were noted. No changes were induced by the treatment with YTX. Ultrastructural analysis of the heart revealed some cardiomyocytes with "loose packing" of myofibrils and aggregated rounded mitochondria in mice co-administered with the toxins or with YTX; OA-treated mice showed only occasional mitochondrial assemblage and dilated sarcomeres. Thus, the combined oral doses of YTX (1 mg/kg/day) and OA (0.185 mg/kg/day) did not exert cumulative or additive toxic effects in mice, in comparison to the single toxins.
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9
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Korsnes MS, Espenes A, Hermansen LC, Loader JI, Miles CO. Cytotoxic responses in BC3H1 myoblast cell lines exposed to 1-desulfoyessotoxin. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:1962-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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10
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Martín-López A, Gallardo-Rodríguez JJ, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Molina-Grima E. Cytotoxicity of yessotoxin and okadaic acid in mouse T lymphocyte cell line EL-4. Toxicon 2012; 60:1049-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Yessotoxin as an apoptotic inducer. Toxicon 2011; 57:947-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Revised: 01/31/2011] [Accepted: 03/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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12
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Tubaro A, Dell'Ovo V, Sosa S, Florio C. Yessotoxins: A toxicological overview. Toxicon 2010; 56:163-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Revised: 06/17/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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13
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Dominguez HJ, Paz B, Daranas AH, Norte M, Franco JM, Fernández JJ. Dinoflagellate polyether within the yessotoxin, pectenotoxin and okadaic acid toxin groups: Characterization, analysis and human health implications. Toxicon 2010; 56:191-217. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 10/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Targets and effects of yessotoxin, okadaic acid and palytoxin: a differential review. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:658-77. [PMID: 20411120 PMCID: PMC2857362 DOI: 10.3390/md8030658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review, we focus on processes, organs and systems targeted by the marine toxins yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA) and palytoxin (PTX). The effects of YTX and their basis are analyzed from data collected in the mollusc Mytilus galloprovincialis, the annelid Enchytraeus crypticus, Swiss CD1 mice and invertebrate and vertebrate cell cultures. OA and PTX, two toxins with a better established mode of action, are analyzed with regard to their effects on development. The amphibian Xenopus laevis is used as a model, and the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) as the experimental protocol.
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Orsi CF, Colombari B, Callegari F, Todaro AM, Ardizzoni A, Rossini GP, Blasi E, Peppoloni S. Yessotoxin inhibits phagocytic activity of macrophages. Toxicon 2009; 55:265-73. [PMID: 19647763 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Revised: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Yessotoxin (YTX) is a sulphated polyether compound produced by some species of dinoflagellate algae, that can be accumulated in bivalve mollusks and ingested by humans upon eating contaminated shellfish. Experiments in mice have demonstrated the lethal effect of YTX after intraperitoneal injection, whereas its oral administration has only limited acute toxicity, coupled with an alteration of plasma membrane protein turnover in the colon of the animals. In vitro studies have shown that this effect is due to the inhibition of endocytosis induced by the toxin. In this work, we investigated the effects of YTX on phagocytosis by using the J774 macrophage cell line. We found that macrophages exposed to 10 or 1 nM YTX display a reduced phagocytic activity against Candida albicans; moreover, phagosome maturation is also inhibited in these cells. Such results were confirmed with resident peritoneal macrophages from normal mice. The inhibition of both phagocytosis and phagosome maturation likely involves cytoskeletal alterations, since a striking rearrangement of the F-actin organization occurs in YTX-treated J774 macrophages. Surprisingly, YTX also enhances cytokine production (TNF-alpha, MIP-1alpha and MIP-2) by J774 macrophages. Overall, our results show that low doses of YTX significantly affect both effector and secretory functions of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Francesca Orsi
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, 41100 Modena, Italy
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Young C, Truman P, Boucher M, Keyzers RA, Northcote P, Jordan TW. The algal metabolite yessotoxin affects heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins in HepG2 cells. Proteomics 2009; 9:2529-42. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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17
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Marine biotoxins in shellfish - Yessotoxin group - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food chain. EFSA J 2009. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Bowden BF. YESSOTOXINS—POLYCYCLIC ETHERS FROM DINOFLAGELLATES: RELATIONSHIPS TO DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS. TOXIN REV 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/15569540600599209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Aune T, Aasen JAB, Miles CO, Larsen S. Effect of mouse strain and gender on LD(50) of yessotoxin. Toxicon 2008; 52:535-40. [PMID: 18657566 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2008] [Revised: 06/27/2008] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine whether the intraperitoneal LD(50) for yessotoxin (YTX) in mice varies with strain or gender. Thirty-six male and 36 female mice, of body weight 16-20 g, from each of the strains ICR (CD-1), Swiss (CFW-1) and NMRI were employed. They were not fasted before YTX treatment. At each dose, nine mice were injected with YTX solutions at 1.0 mL/20 g body weight, and observed for 24h. Symptoms and time to death were recorded. Within each mouse strain and gender arm, the study was performed as a basic four level Response Surface Pathway designed trial with nine mice at each dose level. YTX was isolated from a culture of Protoceratium reticulatum. The LD(50) values for female and male mice, respectively, were estimated as 380 and 462 microg/kg for the ICR, 269 and 328 microg/kg for the Swiss, and 314 and 412 microg/kg for the NMRI strains. The increases in LD(50) from female to male mice were found to be 22% for ICR, 22% for Swiss and 31% for NMRI. The largest difference in LD(50) among mouse strains was detected between the ICR and Swiss strains, where the deviation was 41% in both females and males. The difference between mouse strains was found significant (p = 0.03). For all three strains, females were more susceptible than males, with a difference in LD(50) of 1.2-1.3-fold. The largest difference between the least- and most-susceptible strain was 1.4-fold for both females and males. The largest difference in LD(50), 1.7-fold, was observed between female Swiss and male ICR mice. The difference between genders was not significant (p = 0.12). These results indicate that other factors, like handling of the animals, and the source and handling of the toxin, may significantly influence the outcome of studies on acute toxicity since the reported differences in LD(50) vary by a factor of about seven.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tore Aune
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, P.O. Box 8146 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Tubaro A, Giangaspero A, Ardizzone M, Soranzo M, Vita F, Yasumoto T, Maucher J, Ramsdell J, Sosa S. Ultrastructural damage to heart tissue from repeated oral exposure to yessotoxin resolves in 3 months. Toxicon 2008; 51:1225-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2008] [Accepted: 02/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Yessotoxins, a group of marine polyether toxins: an overview. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:73-102. [PMID: 18728761 PMCID: PMC2525482 DOI: 10.3390/md20080005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2007] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Yessotoxin (YTX) is a marine polyether toxin that was first isolated in 1986 from the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. Subsequently, it was reported that YTX is produced by the dinoflagellates Protoceratium reticulatum, Lingulodinium polyedrum and Gonyaulax spinifera. YTXs have been associated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) because they are often simultaneously extracted with DSP toxins, and give positive results when tested in the conventional mouse bioassay for DSP toxins. However, recent evidence suggests that YTXs should be excluded from the DSP toxins group, because unlike okadaic acid (OA) and dinophyisistoxin-1 (DTX-1), YTXs do not cause either diarrhea or inhibition of protein phosphatases. In spite of the increasing number of molecular studies focused on the toxicity of YTX, the precise mechanism of action is currently unknown. Since the discovery of YTX, almost forty new analogues isolated from both mussels and dinoflagellates have been characterized by NMR or LC-MS/MS techniques. These studies indicate a wide variability in the profile and the relative abundance of YTXs in both, bivalves and dinoflagellates. This review covers current knowledge on the origin, producer organisms and vectors, chemical structures, metabolism, biosynthetic origin, toxicological properties, potential risks to human health and advances in detection methods of YTXs.
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Malagoli D, Marchesini E, Ottaviani E. Lysosomes as the target of yessotoxin in invertebrate and vertebrate cell lines. Toxicol Lett 2006; 167:75-83. [PMID: 17011144 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2006.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2006] [Revised: 08/22/2006] [Accepted: 08/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The toxic effects of the algal polyether phycotoxin yessotoxin (YTX) are studied in the insect fat body IPLB-LdFB and the mouse fibroblast NIH3T3 cell lines. Our experiments confirm the cytotoxic action exerted by the toxin in both insect and mammalian cells, but morphological observations, TUNEL experiments and electrophoretic evalution of DNA integrity failed to evidence a clear pro-apoptotic role for YTX. In both IPLB-LdFB and NIH3T3 cell lines, neutral red and acridine orange stainings, together with evaluation of acid phosphatase activity demonstrate that YTX first damages lysosomal vesicles. This is then followed by a progressive depolymerization of actin microfilaments, as shown by phalloidin fluorescent immunostaining. Overall, our data identify in early lysosomal damage and the subsequent cytoskeletal disruption two common steps related to YTX toxicity towards metazoan cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Malagoli
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 213/D, Modena, Italy
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Samdal IA, Aasen JAB, Briggs LR, Dahl E, Miles CO. Comparison of ELISA and LC-MS analyses for yessotoxins in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2005; 46:7-15. [PMID: 15913691 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2004] [Revised: 02/03/2005] [Accepted: 02/10/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) collected from Flødevigen Bay, Norway, in 2001 and 2002 were analysed for yessotoxins (YTXs) by ELISA and yessotoxin (YTX), 45-hydroxyYTX, and carboxyYTX by LC-MS. Results from the two methods were compared to evaluate the ELISA. The response in the ELISA was 3-13 times higher than LC-MS, probably due to the antibodies binding to other YTX analogues not included in the LC-MS analysis. Nevertheless, the correlation between ELISA and LC-MS was good, with r2 values> or =0.8. The results indicate that the ELISA is a reliable method for estimating the total level of YTXs in mussels, and are consistent with extensive metabolism of algal YTXs in mussels. YTX was a minor component in the blue mussels at all times compared to 45-hydroxyYTX and especially carboxyYTX, except when the P. reticulatum bloom occurred. The results also indicate the presence of significant amounts of YTX analogues in addition to those measured by LC-MS. All samples below 4 mg/kg by ELISA were below the current EU regulatory limit of 1 mg/kg by LC-MS. Therefore, we propose using ELISA as a screening tool with a cut-off limit at 4 mg/kg for negative samples, whereas samples above this limit would be reanalyzed by LC-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- National Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 8156 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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