High-density peptide microarray exploration of the antibody response in a rabbit immunized with a neurotoxic venom fraction

Metabolomics and proteomics: synergistic tools for understanding snake venom inhibition

Snake envenomation presents a significant global health challenge, especially in rural areas of tropical and subtropical regions. Traditional antivenom therapies face limitations related to efficacy, availability, and specificity, prompting a need for novel approaches. Recent advancements in omics technologies, particularly metabolomics and proteomics, have enhanced our understanding of snake venom composition, toxicity, and potential therapeutic strategies. Metabolomics allows for the study of metabolic changes induced by venom, providing insights into disrupted pathways and possible inhibitors. Proteomics facilitates the identification and characterization of venom proteins, unveiling their interactions with therapeutic agents. Integrative databases such as the Snake Venom Database (SVDB) and STAB Profiles enhance this research by cataloging venom components and aiding in the analysis of venom-antivenom interactions. The combined application of metabolomics and proteomics has led to the identification of crucial metabolic pathways and protein targets essential for effective venom inhibition. This review explores current advances in these fields, emphasizing the role of omics in identifying novel inhibitors and developing next-generation antivenoms. The integrated approach of metabolomics and proteomics offers a comprehensive understanding of snake venom biology, paving the way for more effective and tailored therapeutic solutions for envenomation.

Identification of antigenic proteins from the venom of Malaysian snakes using immunoprecipitation assay and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

Snake envenomation poses a significant risk to Malaysians and country visitors. Malaysia witnesses an estimated 650 snake bites per 100,000 population annually. The primary treatment for snake envenomation involves administering antivenom derived from horses, despite its drawbacks, such as anaphylactic reactions and serum sickness. Identifying the venom proteome is crucial for understanding and predicting the clinical implications of envenomation and developing effective treatments targeting specific venom proteins. In this study, we employ an immunoprecipitation assay followed by LC-MS/MS to identify antigenic proteins in five common venomous snakes in Malaysia compassing of two families which are pit vipers, (Calloselasma rhodostoma and Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus) and cobras (Ophiophagus hannah, Naja kaouthia, and Naja sumatrana). The immunoprecipitation assay utilises a 2 % agarose gel, allowing antigenic proteins to diffuse and bind with antibodies in the antivenom. The antivenom utilised in this research was procured from the Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute (QSMI), Thailand, including king cobra antivenom (KCAV), cobra antivenom (CAV), Malayan pit viper antivenom (MPAV), Russell's viper antivenom (RPAV), hematopolyvalent antivenom (HPAV), neuropolyvalent antivenom (NPAV), banded krait antivenom (BKAV), and Malayan krait antivenom (MKAV). The protein identified through these interactions which are exclusive to the cobras are three-finger toxins (3FTXs) while snake C-type lectins (Snaclecs) are unique to the pit vipers. Common protein that are present in both families are L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), Phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP). Identifying these proteins is vital for formulating a broad-spectrum antivenom applicable across multiple species.

An interactive database for the investigation of high-density peptide microarray guided interaction patterns and antivenom cross-reactivity

Snakebite envenoming is a major neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people every year. The only effective treatment against snakebite envenoming consists of unspecified cocktails of polyclonal antibodies purified from the plasma of immunized production animals. Currently, little data exists on the molecular interactions between venom-toxin epitopes and antivenom-antibody paratopes. To address this issue, high-density peptide microarray (hdpm) technology has recently been adapted to the field of toxinology. However, analysis of such valuable datasets requires expert understanding and, thus, complicates its broad application within the field. In the present study, we developed a user-friendly, and high-throughput web application named "Snake Toxin and Antivenom Binding Profiles" (STAB Profiles), to allow straight-forward analysis of hdpm datasets. To test our tool and evaluate its performance with a large dataset, we conducted hdpm assays using all African snake toxin protein sequences available in the UniProt database at the time of study design, together with eight commercial antivenoms in clinical use in Africa, thus representing the largest venom-antivenom dataset to date. Furthermore, we introduced a novel method for evaluating raw signals from a peptide microarray experiment and a data normalization protocol enabling intra-microarray and even inter-microarray chip comparisons. Finally, these data, alongside all the data from previous similar studies by Engmark et al., were preprocessed according to our newly developed protocol and made publicly available for download through the STAB Profiles web application (http://tropicalpharmacology.com/tools/stab-profiles/). With these data and our tool, we were able to gain key insights into toxin-antivenom interactions and were able to differentiate the ability of different antivenoms to interact with certain toxins of interest. The data, as well as the web application, we present in this article should be of significant value to the venom-antivenom research community. Knowledge gained from our current and future analyses of this dataset carry the potential to guide the improvement and optimization of current antivenoms for maximum patient benefit, as well as aid the development of next-generation antivenoms.

Horse immunization with short-chain consensus α-neurotoxin generates antibodies against broad spectrum of elapid venomous species

Antivenoms are fundamental in the therapy for snakebites. In elapid venoms, there are toxins, e.g. short-chain α-neurotoxins, which are quite abundant, highly toxic, and consequently play a major role in envenomation processes. The core problem is that such α-neurotoxins are weakly immunogenic, and many current elapid antivenoms show low reactivity towards them. We have previously developed a recombinant consensus short-chain α-neurotoxin (ScNtx) based on sequences from the most lethal elapid venoms from America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Here we report that an antivenom generated by immunizing horses with ScNtx can successfully neutralize the lethality of pure recombinant and native short-chain α-neurotoxins, as well as whole neurotoxic elapid venoms from diverse genera such as Micrurus, Dendroaspis, Naja, Walterinnesia, Ophiophagus and Hydrophis. These results provide a proof-of-principle for using recombinant proteins with rationally designed consensus sequences as universal immunogens for developing next-generation antivenoms with higher effectiveness and broader neutralizing capacity.

Innovative Immunization Strategies for Antivenom Development

Snakes, scorpions, and spiders are venomous animals that pose a threat to human health, and severe envenomings from the bites or stings of these animals must be treated with antivenom. Current antivenoms are based on plasma-derived immunoglobulins or immunoglobulin fragments from hyper-immunized animals. Although these medicines have been life-saving for more than 120 years, opportunities to improve envenoming therapy exist. In the later decades, new biotechnological tools have been applied with the aim of improving the efficacy, safety, and affordability of antivenoms. Within the avenues explored, novel immunization strategies using synthetic peptide epitopes, recombinant toxins (or toxoids), or DNA strings as immunogens have demonstrated potential for generating antivenoms with high therapeutic antibody titers and broad neutralizing capacity. Furthermore, these approaches circumvent the need for venom in the production process of antivenoms, thereby limiting some of the complications associated with animal captivity and venom collection. Finally, an important benefit of innovative immunization approaches is that they are often compatible with existing antivenom manufacturing setups. In this review, we compile all reported studies examining venom-independent innovative immunization strategies for antivenom development. In addition, a brief description of toxin families of medical relevance found in snake, scorpion, and spider venoms is presented, as well as how biochemical, bioinformatic, and omics tools could aid the development of next-generation antivenoms.

Antibody Cross-Reactivity in Antivenom Research

Antivenom cross-reactivity has been investigated for decades to determine which antivenoms can be used to treat snakebite envenomings from different snake species. Traditionally, the methods used for analyzing cross-reactivity have been immunodiffusion, immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), enzymatic assays, and in vivo neutralization studies. In recent years, new methods for determination of cross-reactivity have emerged, including surface plasmon resonance, antivenomics, and high-density peptide microarray technology. Antivenomics involves a top-down assessment of the toxin-binding capacities of antivenoms, whereas high-density peptide microarray technology may be harnessed to provide in-depth knowledge on which toxin epitopes are recognized by antivenoms. This review provides an overview of both the classical and new methods used to investigate antivenom cross-reactivity, the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and examples of studies using the methods. A special focus is given to antivenomics and high-density peptide microarray technology as these high-throughput methods have recently been introduced in this field and may enable more detailed assessments of antivenom cross-reactivity.

Snakebite: When the Human Touch Becomes a Bad Touch

Many issues and complications in treating snakebite are a result of poor human social, economic and clinical intervention and management. As such, there is scope for significant improvements for reducing incidence and increasing patient outcomes. Snakes do not target humans as prey, but as our dwellings and farms expand ever farther and climate change increases snake activity periods, accidental encounters with snakes seeking water and prey increase drastically. Despite its long history, the snakebite crisis is neglected, ignored, underestimated and fundamentally misunderstood. Tens of thousands of lives are lost to snakebites each year and hundreds of thousands of people will survive with some form of permanent damage and reduced work capacity. These numbers are well recognized as being gross underestimations due to poor to non-existent record keeping in some of the most affected areas. These underestimations complicate achieving the proper recognition of snakebite’s socioeconomic impact and thus securing foreign aid to help alleviate this global crisis. Antivenoms are expensive and hospitals are few and far between, leaving people to seek help from traditional healers or use other forms of ineffective treatment. In some cases, cheaper, inappropriately manufactured antivenom from other regions is used despite no evidence for their efficacy, with often robust data demonstrating they are woefully ineffective in neutralizing many venoms for which they are marketed for. Inappropriate first-aid and treatments include cutting the wound, tourniquets, electrical shock, immersion in ice water, and use of ineffective herbal remedies by traditional healers. Even in the developed world, there are fundamental controversies including fasciotomy, pressure bandages, antivenom dosage, premedication such as adrenalin, and lack of antivenom for exotic snakebites in the pet trade. This review explores the myriad of human-origin factors that influence the trajectory of global snakebite causes and treatment failures and illustrate that snakebite is as much a sociological and economic problem as it is a medical one. Reducing the incidence and frequency of such controllable factors are therefore realistic targets to help alleviate the global snakebite burden as incremental improvements across several areas will have a strong cumulative effect.

Short-chain consensus alpha-neurotoxin: a synthetic 60-mer peptide with generic traits and enhanced immunogenic properties

The three-fingered toxin family and more precisely short-chain α-neurotoxins (also known as Type I α-neurotoxins) are crucial in defining the elapid envenomation process, but paradoxically, they are barely neutralized by current elapid snake antivenoms. This work has been focused on the primary structural identity among Type I neurotoxins in order to create a consensus short-chain α-neurotoxin with conserved characteristics. A multiple sequence alignment considering the twelve most toxic short-chain α-neurotoxins reported from the venoms of the elapid genera Acanthophis, Oxyuranus, Walterinnesia, Naja, Dendroaspis and Micrurus led us to propose a short-chain consensus α-neurotoxin, here named ScNtx. The synthetic ScNtx gene was de novo constructed and cloned into the expression vector pQE30 containing a 6His-Tag and an FXa proteolytic cleavage region. Escherichia coli Origami cells transfected with the pQE30/ScNtx vector expressed the recombinant consensus neurotoxin in a soluble form with a yield of 1.5 mg/L of culture medium. The 60-amino acid residue ScNtx contains canonical structural motifs similar to α-neurotoxins from African elapids and its LD₅₀ of 3.8 µg/mice is similar to the most toxic short-chain α-neurotoxins reported from elapid venoms. Furthermore, ScNtx was also able to antagonize muscular, but not neuronal, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR). Rabbits immunized with ScNtx were able to immune-recognize short-chain α-neurotoxins within whole elapid venoms. Type I neurotoxins are difficult to isolate and purify from natural sources; therefore, the heterologous expression of molecules such ScNtx, bearing crucial motifs and key amino acids, is a step forward to create common immunogens for developing cost-effective antivenoms with a wider spectrum of efficacy, quality and strong therapeutic value.

Identification of Immunoreactive Peptides of Toxins to Simultaneously Assess the Neutralization Potency of Antivenoms against Neurotoxicity and Cytotoxicity of Naja atra Venom

Assessing the neutralization capability of nonlethal but medically relevant toxins in venom has been a challenging task. Nowadays, neutralization efficacy is evaluated based simply on the survival rates of animals injected with antivenom together with a predefined dose of venom, which can determine potency against neurotoxicity but not validate the capability to neutralize cytotoxin-induced complications. In this study, a high correlation with in-vivo and in-vitro neutralization assays was established using the immunoreactive peptides identified from short-chain neurotoxin and cytotoxin A3. These peptides contain conserved residues associated with toxin activities and a competition assay indicated that these peptides could specifically block the antibody binding to toxin and affect the neutralization potency of antivenom. Moreover, the titers of peptide-specific antibody in antivenoms or mouse antisera were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) simultaneously, and the results indicated that Taiwanese bivalent antivenom (BAV) and Vietnamese snake antivenom-Naja (SAV-Naja) exhibited superior neutralization potency against the lethal effect of short-chain neurotoxin (sNTX) and cytotoxicity of cardiotoxin/cytotoxin (CTX), respectively. Thus, the reported peptide ELISA shows not only its potential for antivenom prequalification use, but also its capability of justifying the cross-neutralization potency of antivenoms against Naja atra venom toxicity.