DNA-PK, Nuclear mTOR, and the Androgen Pathway in Prostate Cancer

SREBF1-based metabolic reprogramming in prostate cancer promotes tumor ferroptosis resistance

Metabolic reprogramming in prostate cancer has been widely recognized as a promoter of tumor progression and treatment resistance. This study investigated its association with ferroptosis resistance in prostate cancer and explored its therapeutic potential. In this study, we identified differences in the epithelial characteristics between normal prostate tissue and tissues of various types of prostate cancer using single-cell sequencing. Through transcription factor regulatory network analysis, we focused on the candidate transcription factor, SREBF1. We identified the differences in SREBF1 transcriptional activity and its association with ferroptosis, and further verified this association using hdWGCNA. We constructed a risk score based on SREBF1 target genes associated with the biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer by combining bulk RNA analysis. Finally, we verified the effects of the SREBPs inhibitor Betulin on the treatment of prostate cancer and its chemosensitization effect. We observed characteristic differences in fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism between normal prostate tissue and prostate cancer tissue, identifying high transcriptional activity of SREBF1 in prostate cancer tissue. This indicates that SREBF1 is crucial for the metabolic reprogramming of prostate cancer, and that its mediated metabolic changes promoted ferroptosis resistance in prostate cancer in multiple ways. SREBF1 target genes are associated with biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer. Finally, our experiments verified that SREBF1 inhibitors can significantly promote an increase in ROS, the decrease in GSH, and the decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential in prostate cancer cells and confirmed their chemosensitization effect in vivo. Our findings highlighted a close association between SREBF1 and ferroptosis resistance in prostate cancer. SREBF1 significantly influences metabolic reprogramming in prostate cancer cells, leading to ferroptosis resistance. Importantly, our results demonstrated that SREBF1 inhibitors can significantly enhance the therapeutic effect and chemosensitization of prostate cancer, suggesting a promising therapeutic potential for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Single-cell sequencing revealed metabolic reprogramming and its transcription factor regulatory network in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among men in the United States and is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men. The incidence of prostate cancer is gradually rising due to factors such as aging demographics and changes in dietary habits. The objective of this study is to investigate the metabolic reprogramming changes occurring in prostate cancer and identify potential therapeutic targets.

METHODS

In this study, we utilized single-cell sequencing to comprehensively characterize the alterations in metabolism and the regulatory role of transcription factors in various subtypes of prostate cancer.

RESULTS

In comparison to benign prostate tissue, prostate cancer displayed substantial metabolic variations, notably exhibiting heightened activity in fatty acid metabolism and cholesterol metabolism. This metabolic reprogramming not only influenced cellular energy utilization but also potentially impacted the activity of the androgen receptor (AR) pathway through the synthesis of endogenous steroid hormones. Through our analysis of transcription factor activity, we identified the crucial role of SREBPs, which are transcription factors associated with lipid metabolism, in prostate cancer. Encouragingly, the inhibitor Betulin effectively suppresses prostate cancer growth, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent for prostate cancer treatment.

Canonical and Nuclear mTOR Specify Distinct Transcriptional Programs in Androgen-Dependent Prostate Cancer Cells

mTOR is a serine/threonine kinase that controls prostate cancer cell growth in part by regulating gene programs associated with metabolic and cell proliferation pathways. mTOR-mediated control of gene expression can be achieved via phosphorylation of transcription factors, leading to changes in their cellular localization and activities. mTOR also directly associates with chromatin in complex with transcriptional regulators, including the androgen receptor (AR). Nuclear mTOR (nmTOR) has been previously shown to act as a transcriptional integrator of the androgen signaling pathway in association with the chromatin remodeling machinery, AR, and FOXA1. However, the contribution of cytoplasmic mTOR (cmTOR) and nmTOR and the role played by FOXA1 in this process remains to be explored. Herein, we engineered cells expressing mTOR tagged with nuclear localization and export signals dictating mTOR localization. Transcriptome profiling in AR-positive prostate cancer cells revealed that nmTOR generally downregulates a subset of the androgen response pathway independently of its kinase activity, while cmTOR upregulates a cell cycle-related gene signature in a kinase-dependent manner. Biochemical and genome-wide transcriptomic analyses demonstrate that nmTOR functionally interacts with AR and FOXA1. Ablation of FOXA1 reprograms the nmTOR cistrome and transcriptome of androgen responsive prostate cancer cells. This works highlights a transcriptional regulatory pathway in which direct interactions between nmTOR, AR and FOXA1 dictate a combinatorial role for these factors in the control of specific gene programs in prostate cancer cells.

IMPLICATIONS

The finding that canonical and nuclear mTOR signaling pathways control distinct gene programs opens therapeutic opportunities to modulate mTOR activity in prostate cancer cells.

MALAT1 promotes FOXA1 degradation by competitively binding to miR-216a-5p and enhancing neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer

OBJECTIVES

Prostate cancer (PC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death in males worldwide. Neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) is a feature of PC that often goes undetected and is associated with poor patient outcomes. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs/miRs), and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) play important roles in the development and progression of PC.

METHODS

In this study, we used transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis to identify key regulators of NED in PC. Specifically, we examined the expression of PC-related lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs in PC cells and correlated these findings with NED phenotypes.

RESULTS

Our data revealed that metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) and zinc finger protein 91 (ZFP91) were upregulated in PC, while miR-216a-5p was down-regulated. Ectopic expression of MALAT1 induced NED and promoted malignant phenotypes of PC cells. Furthermore, we found that MALAT1 competitively bound to miR-216a-5p, upregulated ZFP91, and promoted the degradation of forkhead box A1 (FOXA1), a key gene involved in NED of PC.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results suggest that MALAT1 plays an oncogenic role in NED and metastasis of PC via the miR-216a-5p/ZFP91/FOXA1 pathway. Our study highlights the potential of targeting this pathway as a novel therapeutic strategy for PC.

Enzalutamide and olaparib synergistically suppress castration-resistant prostate cancer progression by promoting apoptosis through inhibiting nonhomologous end joining pathway

Recent studies revealed the relationship among homologous recombination repair (HRR), androgen receptor (AR), and poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase (PARP); however, the synergy between anti-androgen enzalutamide (ENZ) and PARP inhibitor olaparib (OLA) remains unclear. Here, we showed that the synergistic effect of ENZ and OLA significantly reduced proliferation and induced apoptosis in AR-positive prostate cancer cell lines. Next-generation sequencing followed by Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses revealed the significant effects of ENZ plus OLA on nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) and apoptosis pathways. ENZ combined with OLA synergistically inhibited the NHEJ pathway by repressing DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) and X-ray repair cross complementing 4 (XRCC4). Moreover, our data showed that ENZ could enhance the response of prostate cancer cells to the combination therapy by reversing the anti-apoptotic effect of OLA through the downregulation of anti-apoptotic gene insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor ( IGF1R ) and the upregulation of pro-apoptotic gene death-associated protein kinase 1 ( DAPK1 ). Collectively, our results suggested that ENZ combined with OLA can promote prostate cancer cell apoptosis by multiple pathways other than inducing HRR defects, providing evidence for the combined use of ENZ and OLA in prostate cancer regardless of HRR gene mutation status.

Hierarchical Phosphorylation of HOXB13 by mTOR Dictates Its Activity and Oncogenic Function in Prostate Cancer

Dysregulation of mTOR signaling plays a critical role in promoting prostate cancer growth. HOXB13, a homeodomain transcription factor, is known to influence the androgen response and prostate cancer development. Recently, HOXB13 was found to complex with mTOR on chromatin. However, the functional crosstalk between HOXB13 and mTOR remains elusive. We now report that mTOR directly interacts with and hierarchically phosphorylates HOXB13 at threonine 8 and 41 then serine 31 to promote its interaction with the E3 ligase SKP2 while enhancing its oncogenic properties. Expression of HOXB13 harboring phosphomimetic mutations at the mTOR-targeted sites stimulates prostate cancer cellular growth both in vitro and in murine xenografts. Transcriptional profiling studies revealed a phospho-HOXB13-dependent gene signature capable of robustly discriminating between normal prostate tissues, primary and metastatic prostate cancer samples. This work uncovers a previously unanticipated molecular cascade by which mTOR directly phosphorylates HOXB13 to dictate a specific gene program with oncogenic implications in prostate cancer.

IMPLICATIONS

Control of HOXB13 transcriptional activity via its direct phosphorylation by the mTOR kinase is a potential therapeutic avenue for the management of advanced prostate cancer.

Function-oriented synthesis of Imidazo[1,2-a]pyrazine and Imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine derivatives as potent PI3K/mTOR dual inhibitors

The PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway is a highly frequently activated signal transduction pathway in human malignancies, which has been a hot target for anti-tumoral drug discovery. Based on our previous research, a function-oriented synthesis (FOS) of imidazo[1,2-a]pyrazines and imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazines was conducted, and their anticancer activities in vitro and in vivo were evaluated. Among them, compound 42 exhibited excellent dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitory activity, with IC50 values on PI3Kα and mTOR of 0.06 nM and 3.12 nM, respectively, much better than our previous reported compound 15a. Furthermore, compound 42 exhibited significant in vitro and in vivo anti-tumoral activities, great kinase selectivity, low hepatotoxicity, modest plasma clearance and acceptable oral bioavailability, which is a promising PI3K/mTOR targeted anti-cancer drug candidate.

Androgen receptor-dependent regulation of metabolism in high grade bladder cancer cells

The observed sex disparity in bladder cancer (BlCa) argues that androgen receptor (AR) signaling has a role in these malignancies. BlCas express full-length AR (FL-AR), constitutively active AR splice variants, including AR-v19, or both, and their depletion limits BlCa viability. However, the mechanistic basis of AR-dependence is unknown. Here, we depleted FL-AR, AR-v19, or all AR forms (T-AR), and performed RNA-seq studies to uncover that different AR forms govern distinct but partially overlapping transcriptional programs. Overlapping alterations include a decrease in mTOR and an increase of hypoxia regulated transcripts accompanied by a decline in oxygen consumption rate (OCR). Queries of BlCa databases revealed a significant negative correlation between AR expression and multiple hypoxia-associated transcripts arguing that this regulatory mechanism is a feature of high-grade malignancies. Our analysis of a 1600-compound library identified niclosamide as a strong ATPase inhibitor that reduces OCR in BlCa cells, decreased cell viability and induced apoptosis in a dose and time dependent manner. These results suggest that BlCa cells hijack AR signaling to enhance metabolic activity, promoting cell proliferation and survival; hence targeting this AR downstream vulnerability presents an attractive strategy to limit BlCa.

Addressing the Reciprocal Crosstalk between the AR and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathways for Prostate Cancer Treatment

The reduction in androgen synthesis and the blockade of the androgen receptor (AR) function by chemical castration and AR signaling inhibitors represent the main treatment lines for the initial stages of prostate cancer. Unfortunately, resistance mechanisms ultimately develop due to alterations in the AR pathway, such as gene amplification or mutations, and also the emergence of alternative pathways that render the tumor less or, more rarely, completely independent of androgen activation. An essential oncogenic axis activated in prostate cancer is the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, as evidenced by the frequent alterations of the negative regulator phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and by the activating mutations in PI3K subunits. Additionally, crosstalk and reciprocal feedback loops between androgen signaling and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling cascade that activate pro-survival signals and play an essential role in disease recurrence and progression have been evidenced. Inhibitors addressing different players of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway have been evaluated in the clinic. Only a limited benefit has been reported in prostate cancer up to now due to the associated side effects, so novel combination approaches and biomarkers predictive of patient response are urgently needed. Here, we reviewed recent data on the crosstalk between AR signaling and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, the selective inhibitors identified, and the most advanced clinical studies, with a focus on combination treatments. A deeper understanding of the complex molecular mechanisms involved in disease progression and treatment resistance is essential to further guide therapeutic approaches with improved outcomes.

Targeting DNA-PK

This chapter explores the multifaceted roles of DNA-PK with particular focus on its functions in non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) DNA repair. DNA-PK is the primary orchestrator of NHEJ but also regulates other biologic processes. The growing understanding of varied DNA-PK biologic roles highlights new avenues for cancer treatment. However, these multiple roles also imply challenges, particularly in combination therapies, with perhaps a higher risk of clinical toxicities than was previously envisioned. These considerations underscore the need for compelling and innovative strategies to accomplish effective clinical translation.

Dual contribution of the mTOR pathway and of the metabolism of amino acids in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer is the leading cause of cancer in men, and its incidence increases with age. Among other risk factors, pre-existing metabolic diseases have been recently linked with prostate cancer, and our current knowledge recognizes prostate cancer as a condition with important metabolic anomalies as well. In malignancies, metabolic disorders are commonly associated with aberrations in mTOR, which is the master regulator of protein synthesis and energetic homeostasis. Although there are reports demonstrating the high dependency of prostate cancer cells for lipid derivatives and even for carbohydrates, the understanding regarding amino acids, and the relationship with the mTOR pathway ultimately resulting in metabolic aberrations, is still scarce.

CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

In this review, we briefly provide evidence supporting prostate cancer as a metabolic disease, and discuss what is known about mTOR signaling and prostate cancer. Next, we emphasized on the amino acids glutamine, leucine, serine, glycine, sarcosine, proline and arginine, commonly related to prostate cancer, to explore the alterations in their regulatory pathways and to link them with the associated metabolic reprogramming events seen in prostate cancer. Finally, we display potential therapeutic strategies for targeting mTOR and the referred amino acids, as experimental approaches to selectively attack prostate cancer cells.

miR-145-5p Inhibits Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Tumor Growth by Regulating the SOX11/MYCN Axis in Prostate cancer

Recent studies have shown that the downregulation of miR-145-5p in prostate cancer (PCa) is significantly associated with poor differentiation and prognosis. We aimed to investigate the biological role of miR-145-5p in the neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) of PCa. In this study, TheCancer Genome Atlas was used to identify the association of miR-145-5p with PCa. The functions of miR-145-5p were evaluated using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and cell cycle analysis. We validated changes in cell cycle control by testing the expression of cyclin-related genes by western blot. The luciferase reporter assay was performed to test miR-145-5p-targeting genes and direct transcriptional targets of SOX11. The expression of miR-145-5p was found to be significantly downregulated in castration-resistant PCa, and this was correlated with higher Gleason score and prostate-specific antigen. We confirmed these results using PC3 and LNCaP cell lines depicted a gradual decline of miR-145-5p while the cells were cultured under androgen depletion conditions. Moreover, the knockdown of miR-145-5p significantly promoted NED and proliferation of LNCaP cells, whereas overexpression of miR-145-5p significantly inhibited NED and proliferation of LNCaP cells. Mechanistically, we found that SOX11 was a direct target of miR-145-5p, which regulates MYCN might mediate induction of NED and proliferation of LNCaP cells. Furthermore, knockdown of miR-145-5p promoted tumor growth in vivo. Our findings suggest that miR-145-5p can inhibit NED and tumor growth by targeting SOX11, which regulates the expression of MYCN, and that this could be a novel therapeutic strategy for preventing the progression of PCa.

Exploring the Pharmacological Mechanisms of Xihuang Pills Against Prostate Cancer via Integrating Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation In Vitro and In Vivo

Background: Drug resistance is the major cause of increasing mortality in prostate cancer (PCa). Therefore, it an urgent to develop more effective therapeutic agents for PCa treatment. Xihuang pills (XHP) have been recorded as the efficient anti-tumor formula in ancient Chinese medical literature, which has been utilized in several types of cancers nowadays. However, the effect protective role of XHP on the PCa and its underlying mechanisms are still unclear.

Methods: The active ingredients of XHP were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP) and BATMAN-TCM. The potential targets of PCa were acquired from the Gene Cards and OMIM databases. R language and Perl language program were utilized to clarify the interaction between the PCa-related targets and the potential targets of XHP. The potential targets of XHP for prostate cancer were gathered from the Gene ontology and KEGG pathway. Furthermore, cell proliferation assays were verified by PC3 and LNCaP cells. The efficacy and potential mechanism tests were confirmed by the PCa PC3 cells and mice subcutaneous transplantation. The effects of PI3K/Akt/mTOR-related proteins on proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle of PCa cells were measured by the Cell Counting Kit-8(CCK8), TUNEL assay, real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (QRT-PCR), and Western Blotting, respectively.

Results: The active components of four traditional Chinese medicines in XHP were searched on the TCMSP and Batman TCM database. The biological active components of XHP were obtained as OB ≥30% and DL ≥0.18. The analysis of gene ontology and KEGG pathway identified the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway as the XHP-associated pathway. Collectively, the results of in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that XHP had the effect of inhibiting on the proliferation of PC3 and LNCaP cells. XHP promoted the apoptosis and restrained the cell cycle and invasion of the PC3 cells and subcutaneous transplantation. Meanwhile, the suppression of XHP on the level of expression of PI3K, Akt, and mTOR-pathway-related pathway proteins has been identified in a dose-dependent manner.

Conclusion: PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway-related pathway proteins were confirmed as the potential XHP-associated targets for PCa. XHP can suppress the proliferation of prostate cancer via inhibitions of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.

The mTOR chromatin-bound interactome in prostate cancer

A growing number of studies support a direct role for nuclear mTOR in gene regulation and chromatin structure. Still, the scarcity of known chromatin-bound mTOR partners limits our understanding of how nuclear mTOR controls transcription. Herein, comprehensive mapping of the mTOR chromatin-bound interactome in both androgen-dependent and -independent cellular models of prostate cancer (PCa) identifies a conserved 67-protein interaction network enriched for chromatin modifiers, transcription factors, and SUMOylation machinery. SUMO2/3 and nuclear pore protein NUP210 are among the strongest interactors, while the androgen receptor (AR) is the dominant androgen-inducible mTOR partner. Further investigation reveals that NUP210 facilitates mTOR nuclear trafficking, that mTOR and AR form a functional transcriptional module with the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex, and that androgens specify mTOR-SUMO2/3 promoter-enhancer association. This work identifies a vast network of mTOR-associated nuclear complexes advocating innovative molecular strategies to modulate mTOR-dependent gene regulation with conceivable implications for PCa and other diseases.

Targeting Protein Kinases and Epigenetic Control as Combinatorial Therapy Options for Advanced Prostate Cancer Treatment

Prostate cancer (PC), the fifth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, is known as metastatic bone cancer when it spreads to the bone. Although there is still no effective treatment for advanced/metastatic PC, awareness of the molecular events that contribute to PC progression has opened up opportunities and raised hopes for the development of new treatment strategies. Androgen deprivation and androgen-receptor-targeting therapies are two gold standard treatments for metastatic PC. However, acquired resistance to these treatments is a crucial challenge. Due to the role of protein kinases (PKs) in the growth, proliferation, and metastases of prostatic tumors, combinatorial therapy by PK inhibitors may help pave the way for metastatic PC treatment. Additionally, PC is known to have epigenetic involvement. Thus, understanding epigenetic pathways can help adopt another combinatorial treatment strategy. In this study, we reviewed the PKs that promote PC to advanced stages. We also summarized some PK inhibitors that may be used to treat advanced PC and we discussed the importance of epigenetic control in this cancer. We hope the information presented in this article will contribute to finding an effective treatment for the management of advanced PC.

Liquid biopsy in prostate cancer: current status and future challenges of clinical application

PURPOSE

Liquid biopsy refers to the detection and analysis of the components from biological fluids non-invasively, including circulating tumor cells, nucleic acids, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). It is necessary to review the clinical value of liquid biopsy assays in PC and explore its potential application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We systematically reviewed of PubMed was performed to identify relevant literature on potential clinical applications of circulating tumor cells, circulating nucleic acids, and EVs in prostate cancer (PC).

RESULTS

Liquid biopsy has emerged as a powerful tool to elucidate dynamic genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic tumor profiling in real-time. Here, the potential clinical applications of liquid biopsy include early detection, prognosis of survival, assessment of treatment response, and mechanisms of drug resistance in PC.

CONCLUSIONS

Liquid biopsy provides great value in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment response in PC. Characterization of liquid biopsy components provides benefits both to unravel underlying resistance mechanisms and to exploit novel clinically actionable targets in PC. In addition, we suggest that analysis of multiparametric liquid biopsies should be analyzed comprehensively, assisting in monitoring tumor characteristics in real-time, guiding therapeutic selection, and early therapeutic switching during disease progression.

Regulation of mRNA Translation by Hormone Receptors in Breast and Prostate Cancer

Breast and prostate cancer are the second and third leading causes of death amongst all cancer types, respectively. Pathogenesis of these malignancies is characterised by dysregulation of sex hormone signalling pathways, mediated by the estrogen receptor-α (ER) in breast cancer and androgen receptor (AR) in prostate cancer. ER and AR are transcription factors whose aberrant function drives oncogenic transcriptional programs to promote cancer growth and progression. While ER/AR are known to stimulate cell growth and survival by modulating gene transcription, emerging findings indicate that their effects in neoplasia are also mediated by dysregulation of protein synthesis (i.e., mRNA translation). This suggests that ER/AR can coordinately perturb both transcriptional and translational programs, resulting in the establishment of proteomes that promote malignancy. In this review, we will discuss relatively understudied aspects of ER and AR activity in regulating protein synthesis as well as the potential of targeting mRNA translation in breast and prostate cancer.

Molecular regulation of lifespan extension in fertile ant workers

The evolution of sociality in insects caused a divergence in lifespan between reproductive and non-reproductive castes. Ant queens can live for decades, while most workers survive only weeks to a few years. In most organisms, longevity is traded-off with reproduction, but in social insects, these two life-history traits are positively linked. Once fertility is induced in workers, e.g. by queen removal, worker lifespan increases. The molecular regulation of this positive link between fecundity and longevity and generally the molecular underpinnings of caste-specific senescence are not well understood. Here, we investigate the transcriptomic regulation of lifespan and reproduction in fat bodies of three worker groups in the ant Temnothorax rugatulus. In a long-term experiment, workers that became fertile in the absence of the queen showed increased survival and upregulation of genes involved in longevity and fecundity pathways. Interestingly, workers that re-joined their queen after months exhibited intermediate ovary development, but retained a high expression of longevity and fecundity genes. Strikingly, the queen's presence causes a general downregulation of genes in worker fat bodies. Our findings point to long-term consequences of fertility induction in workers, even after re-joining their queen. Moreover, we reveal longevity genes and pathways modulated during insect social evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Ageing and sociality: why, when and how does sociality change ageing patterns?'

Role of αVβ3 in Prostate Cancer: Metastasis Initiator and Important Therapeutic Target

In prostate cancer, distant organ metastasis is the leading cause of patient death. Although the mechanism of malignant tumor metastasis is unclear, studies have confirmed that integrin αVβ3 plays an important role in this process. In prostate cancer, αVβ3 mediates adhesion, invasion, immune escape and neovascularization through interactions with different ligands. Among these ligands and in addition to proteins that are directly related to tumor invasion, other proteins that contain the RGD structure could also bind to αVβ3 and cause a number of biological effects. In this article, we summarized the ligand and downstream proteins related to αVβ3-mediated prostate cancer metastasis as well as some diagnostic and therapeutic measures targeting αVβ3.