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Transcriptome profiling of blood from common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the northern Gulf of Mexico to enhance health assessment capabilities. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0272345. [PMID: 36001538 PMCID: PMC9401185 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster and subsequent unusual mortality event, adverse health impacts have been reported in bottlenose dolphins in Barataria Bay, LA including impaired stress response and reproductive, pulmonary, cardiac, and immune function. These conditions were primarily diagnosed through hands-on veterinary examinations and analysis of standard diagnostic panels. In human and veterinary medicine, gene expression profiling has been used to identify molecular mechanisms underlying toxic responses and disease states. Identification of molecular markers of exposure or disease may enable earlier detection of health effects or allow for health evaluation when the use of specialized methodologies is not feasible. To date this powerful tool has not been applied to augment the veterinary data collected concurrently during dolphin health assessments. This study examined transcriptomic profiles of blood from 76 dolphins sampled in health assessments during 2013–2018 in the waters near Barataria Bay, LA and Sarasota Bay, FL. Gene expression was analyzed in conjunction with the substantial suite of health data collected using principal component analysis, differential expression testing, over-representation analysis, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Broadly, transcript profiles of Barataria Bay dolphins indicated a shift in immune response, cytoskeletal alterations, and mitochondrial dysfunction, most pronounced in dolphins likely exposed to Deepwater Horizon oiling. While gene expression profiles in Barataria Bay dolphins were altered compared to Sarasota Bay for all years, profiles from 2013 exhibited the greatest alteration in gene expression. Differentially expressed transcripts included genes involved in immunity, inflammation, reproductive failure, and lung or cardiac dysfunction, all of which have been documented in dolphins from Barataria Bay following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The genes and pathways identified in this study may, with additional research and validation, prove useful as molecular markers of exposure or disease to assist wildlife veterinarians in evaluating the health of dolphins and other cetaceans.
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Richard JT, Schultz K, Goertz CEC, Hobbs RC, Romano TA, Sartini BL. Evaluating beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas) blow samples as a potential diagnostic for immune function gene expression within the respiratory system. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 10:coac045. [PMID: 35795014 PMCID: PMC9252111 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coac045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Evaluating respiratory health is important in the management of cetaceans, which are vulnerable to respiratory diseases. Quantifying the expression of genes related to immune function within the respiratory tract could be a valuable tool for directly assessing respiratory health. Blow (exhale) samples allow DNA analysis, and we hypothesized that RNA could also be isolated from blow samples for gene expression studies of immune function. We evaluated the potential to extract RNA from beluga blow samples and tested whether transcripts associated with immune function could be detected with endpoint polymerase chain reaction. A total of 54 blow samples were collected from clinically healthy aquarium belugas (n = 3), and 15 were collected from wild belugas temporarily restrained for health assessment in Bristol Bay, Alaska (n = 9). Although RNA yield varied widely (range, 0-265.2 ng; mean = 85.8; SD = 71.3), measurable RNA was extracted from 97% of the samples. Extracted RNA was assessed in 1-6 PCR reactions targeting housekeeping genes (Rpl8, Gapdh or ActB) or genes associated with immune function (TNFα, IL-12p40 or Cox-2). Fifty of the aquarium samples (93%) amplified at least one transcript; overall PCR success for housekeeping genes (96/110, 87%) and genes associated with immune function (90/104, 87%) were similarly high. Both RNA yield and overall PCR success (27%) were lower for wild beluga samples, which is most likely due to the reduced forcefulness of the exhale when compared with trained or free-swimming belugas. Overall, the high detection rate with PCR suggests measuring gene expression in blow samples could provide diagnostic information about immune responses within the respiratory tract. While further study is required to determine if quantitative gene expression data from blow samples is associated with disease states, the non-invasive nature of this approach may prove valuable for belugas, which face increasing anthropogenic disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin T Richard
- Corresponding author: Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Krystle Schultz
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, 9 E Alumni Drive, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | | | - Roderick C Hobbs
- Retired from Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, F/AKC3, Seattle, WA 98115-6349, USA
| | - Tracy A Romano
- Mystic Aquarium, a Division of Sea Research Foundation, 55 Coogan Blvd, Mystic, CT 06355, USA
| | - Becky L Sartini
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, 9 E Alumni Drive, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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Meza Cerda MI, Gray R, Thomson PC, Butcher L, Simpson K, Cameron A, Marcus AD, Higgins DP. Developing Immune Profiles of Endangered Australian Sea Lion ( Neophoca cinerea) Pups Within the Context of Endemic Hookworm ( Uncinaria sanguinis) Infection. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:824584. [PMID: 35529837 PMCID: PMC9069138 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.824584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As a top predator, the endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) is a sentinel of ecosystem change, where population trends can reflect broader shifts in the marine environment. The population of this endemic pinniped was historically diminished by commercial sealing, and recovery has been slowed by fishery interactions, disease and, potentially, pollutants. Hookworm infects 100% of neonatal pups and has been identified as a contributor to population decline. Here, a multivariable approach using traditional serological and novel molecular tools such as qPCR and ddPCR was used to examine immune phenotypes of developing Australian sea lion pups infected with the endemic hookworm (Uncinaria sanguinis) from two South Australian colonies. Results show changing immunophenotypes throughout the patent period of infection represented by pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6), IgG and acute-phase proteins. Although cytokines may prove useful as markers of resistance, in this study, IL-6 is determined to be an early biomarker of inflammation in Australian sea lion pups, excluding the alternative hypothesis. Additionally, immunological differences between animals from high- and low-intensity hookworm seasons, as well as ivermectin-treated animals, indicate hookworm infection modulation of the host immune response, as evidenced by a lower IL-6 mRNA expression in the non-treated groups. This study of the Australian sea lion is an example of an ecoimmunological approach to disease investigation, which can be applied to evaluate the impact of environmental and anthropogenic factors on susceptibility to infectious diseases in free-ranging species
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Affiliation(s)
- María-Ignacia Meza Cerda
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Rachael Gray
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter C Thomson
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Loreena Butcher
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Kelly Simpson
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Abby Cameron
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alan D Marcus
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Damien P Higgins
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Meza Cerda MI, Gray R, Higgins DP. Cytokine RT-qPCR and ddPCR for immunological investigations of the endangered Australian sea lion ( Neophoca cinerea) and other mammals. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10306. [PMID: 33240637 PMCID: PMC7668205 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Measurement of cytokine gene expression by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is used widely to assess the immune system of animals and to identify biomarkers of disease, but its application is limited in wildlife species due to a lack of species-specific reagents. The free-ranging endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) experiences significant clinical disease and high pup mortality due to intestinal hookworm infection. Developing immunological tools specific to the species will aid in the assessment of drivers of disease and its impact in population demographics. This study describes the development and validation of cross-reactive RT-qPCR assays to measure five important cytokines involved in innate and Th1/Th2 responses (IL-6, TNFα, IFNγ, IL-4 and IL-10) in unstimulated blood samples from a range of different mammalian species including the Australian sea lion. All RT-qPCR assays efficiencies ranged between 87% (Ovis aries TNFα) and 111% (Bos taurus IL-10) and had strong linearity (R2). IL-4 and IFNγ gene expression for N. cinerea fell below the dynamic range (and therefore quantifiable limits) of RT-qPCR assays but were able to be quantified using the novel droplet digital PCR (ddPCR). This study delivers new immunological tools for eco-immunologists studying cytokine gene expression in wildlife species and is to our knowledge, the first cytokine ddPCR approach to be reported in a pinniped species.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-Ignacia Meza Cerda
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Rachael Gray
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Damien P Higgins
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
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IMMUNOMEDIATOR GENE TRANSCRIPTION PROFILING IN BELUGA WHALE ( DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS) CLINICAL CASES. J Zoo Wildl Med 2020; 51:334-349. [PMID: 32549563 DOI: 10.1638/2018-0225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an unmet need for specific diagnostics of immune perturbations and inflammation in beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) clinical care. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) has been used to measure immunomediator gene transcription in beluga whales. The study hypothesis was that a qPCR-based immunomediator assay would supplement routine clinical data with specific and sensitive information on immune status. Two beluga whale clinical cases provided an opportunity to test this hypothesis: a whale with a skin laceration and a whale with gastrointestinal inflammation. Mitogen-stimulated immunomediator gene transcription (MSIGT) was compared between the cases and healthy contact whales. In both case studies, mitogens increased transcription of IL1B, PTGS2 (Cox-2), TNF, HIF1A, and IL2 but decreased IL10 transcription in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from the abnormal whale over the control. Correlations were identified between most immunomediators tested and one or more standard blood clinical values. Considering all 15 immunomediators tested, the whale with gastrointestinal inflammation had a more unique MSIGT signature than the whale with a laceration. These results support further elucidation of beluga whale PBMC cytokine profiles for use as immune biomarkers.
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De Guise S, Levin M, Jasperse L, Risatti G, Wells RS. T Helper Cell Subsets and Their Functions in Common Bottlenose Dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus). Front Immunol 2019; 10:1578. [PMID: 31481952 PMCID: PMC6710549 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Considerable efforts have been made to better understand the immune system of bottlenose dolphins in view of the common environmental challenges they encounter, such as exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls, oil spills, or harmful algal bloom biotoxins. However, little is known about the identity and functionality of the Th1, Th2, and Treg T helper cell subsets in bottlenose dolphins. The present study aimed at validating assays and reagents to identify T helper cell subsets and their functions in a subset of dolphins from Sarasota Bay, Florida, USA, which have been long studied and often used as a reference population. A population of CD4+ FOXP3+ lymphocytes was identified representing an average <1% of blood lymphocyte population, which is in the range observed in for Treg cells in other species. The use of porcine reagents to measure TGFß, one of the key Treg cytokines, was further validated using the relatively high-throughput and highly standardized Luminex technology. The proportion of circulating Treg cells was not correlated with the serum concentrations of the Treg effector cytokines TGFß and IL-10, nor could it significantly contribute to predicting the variability of T lymphocyte proliferation, suggesting that not all dolphin circulating Treg cells are functional and active. However, stimulation of dolphin lymphocytes with TGFß and IL-2 increased the expression of the gene for TGFß and IL-10, and stimulation with IL-12 and IFNγ induced a robust increase in the expression of the gene for IFNγ, suggesting the potential for polarization and differentiation of dolphin T helper cells toward a Treg and Th1 response, respectively. The lack of an increase in the expression of the genes for the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 upon stimulation with IL-4 may be due to the requirement for IL-2 for a Th2 polarization as described in mice. However, regression analysis and PCA suggested the potential ability of both the Th1 and Th2 response to be triggered upon acute inflammatory signals. These results may be useful in better understanding the mechanisms by which the dolphin immune system is affected upon exposure to environmental challenges and how it responds to pathogen challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain De Guise
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, United States.,Connecticut Sea Grant College Program, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, United States
| | - Milton Levin
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, United States
| | - Lindsay Jasperse
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, United States
| | - Guillermo Risatti
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, United States
| | - Randall S Wells
- Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, Chicago Zoological Society and Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, United States
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Chen IH, Chou LS, Chou SJ, Wang JH, Stott J, Blanchard M, Jen IF, Yang WC. Sound exposure-induced cytokine gene transcript profile changes in captive bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) blood identified by a probe-based qRT-PCR. J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:601-605. [PMID: 29479043 PMCID: PMC5938186 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.17-0548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cetacean health may be potentially affected by anthropogenic sound. We have initiated investigations on the effect of low-frequency underwater sound on immunological gene transcript profiles of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) using a probe-based quantitative gene expression assay. Six immunologic genes (IL-2Rα, -4, -10, -12, TNFα and IFNγ) were selected for analysis using two validated housekeeping genes (PGK1 and HPRT1) as reference genes. Twenty-four blood samples from six clinically healthy individuals and six blood samples from individuals after sound exposures were available. The gene transcript profile of sound-exposed dolphins was consistent with a stress-induced TH2 shift profile as compared to controls. This study may lead to better understanding of the effects of anthropogenic sound on immune responses of cetaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Hua Chen
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, No. 580, Xinmin Rd., Chiayi, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Lien-Siang Chou
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Shih-Jen Chou
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, No. 580, Xinmin Rd., Chiayi, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Jiann-Hsiung Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, No. 580, Xinmin Rd., Chiayi, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Jeffrey Stott
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Myra Blanchard
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - I-Fan Jen
- Farglory Ocean Park, No.189, Yenliao Village, Shoufong, Hualien, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Wei-Cheng Yang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, No. 580, Xinmin Rd., Chiayi, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
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Hofstetter AR, Eberle KC, Venn-Watson SK, Jensen ED, Porter TJ, Waters TE, Sacco RE. Monitoring bottlenose dolphin leukocyte cytokine mRNA responsiveness by qPCR. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0189437. [PMID: 29272269 PMCID: PMC5741220 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Both veterinarians caring for dolphins in managed populations and researchers monitoring wild populations use blood-based diagnostics to monitor bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) health. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) can be used to assess cytokine transcription patterns of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). This can supplement currently available blood tests with information on immune status. Full realization of this potential requires establishment of normal ranges of cytokine gene transcription levels in bottlenose dolphins. We surveyed four dolphins over the span of seven months by serial bleeds. PBMC were stimulated with phytohaemagglutinin (1, 5, and 10 μg/mL) and concanavalin A (1 μg/mL) for 48 H in vitro. RNA from these cultures was probed by qPCR using Tursiops truncatus-specific primers (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-1RA, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-13, IL-18, IFN-γ and TNF-α). Two blood samples from an additional bottlenose dolphin diagnosed with acute pulmonary disease add further perspective to the data. We observed that mitogen choice made a significant difference in the magnitude of gene transcription observed. On the other hand, most cytokines tested exhibited limited intra-animal variation. However, IL-6 and IL-12p40 differed between older and younger dolphins. Furthermore, the magnitude of mitogenic response clusters the tested cytokines into three groups. The data provide a reference for the selection of target cytokine mRNAs and their expected range of mitogen-stimulated cytokine gene transcription for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia Ruth Hofstetter
- Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kirsten C. Eberle
- Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Stephanie K. Venn-Watson
- Translational Medicine and Research Program, National Marine Mammal Foundation, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Eric D. Jensen
- United States Navy Marine Mammal Program, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Tracy J. Porter
- Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Theresa E. Waters
- Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Randy E. Sacco
- Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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Tsai MA, Chen IH, Wang JH, Chou SJ, Li TH, Leu MY, Ho HK, Yang WC. A probe-based qRT-PCR method to profile immunological gene expression in blood of captive beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucas). PeerJ 2017; 5:e3840. [PMID: 28970970 PMCID: PMC5622604 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines are fundamental for a functioning immune system, and thus potentially serve as important indicators of animal health. Quantitation of mRNA using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) is an established immunological technique. It is particularly suitable for detecting the expression of proteins against which monoclonal antibodies are not available. In this study, we developed a probe-based quantitative gene expression assay for immunological assessment of captive beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) that is one of the most common cetacean species on display in aquariums worldwide. Six immunologically relevant genes (IL-2Rα, -4, -10, -12, TNFα, and IFNγ) were selected for analysis, and two validated housekeeping genes (PGK1 and RPL4) with stable expression were used as reference genes. Sixteen blood samples were obtained from four animals with different health conditions and stored in RNAlater™ solution. These samples were used for RNA extraction followed by qRT-PCR analysis. Analysis of gene transcripts was performed by relative quantitation using the comparative Cq method with the integration of amplification efficiency and two reference genes. The expression levels of each gene in the samples from clinically healthy animals were normally distributed. Transcript outliers for IL-2Rα, IL-4, IL-12, TNFα, and IFNγ were noticed in four samples collected from two clinically unhealthy animals. This assay has the potential to identify immune system deviation from normal state, which is caused by health problems. Furthermore, knowing the immune status of captive cetaceans could help both trainers and veterinarians in implementing preventive approaches prior to disease onset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-An Tsai
- Department of Biology, National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - I-Hua Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Jiann-Hsiung Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Jen Chou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Hsien Li
- Department of Biology, National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Yih Leu
- Department of Biology, National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Hsiao-Kuan Ho
- Department of Biology, Hi-Scene World Enterprise Co. Ltd., Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Wei Cheng Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
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