Guanylylation-competent replication proteins of Tomato mosaic virus are disulfide-linked

Crowning Touches in Positive-Strand RNA Virus Genome Replication Complex Structure and Function

Positive-strand RNA viruses, the largest genetic class of eukaryotic viruses, include coronaviruses and many other established and emerging pathogens. A major target for understanding and controlling these viruses is their genome replication, which occurs in virus-induced membrane vesicles that organize replication steps and protect double-stranded RNA intermediates from innate immune recognition. The structure of these complexes has been greatly illuminated by recent cryo-electron microscope tomography studies with several viruses. One key finding in diverse systems is the organization of crucial viral RNA replication factors in multimeric rings or crowns that among other functions serve as exit channels gating release of progeny genomes to the cytosol for translation and encapsidation. Emerging results suggest that these crowns serve additional important purposes in replication complex assembly, function, and interaction with downstream processes such as encapsidation. The findings provide insights into viral function and evolution and new bases for understanding, controlling, and engineering positive-strand RNA viruses. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 9 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Transmembrane redox regulation of genome replication functions in positive-strand RNA viruses

Positive-strand RNA virus genome replication takes place on intracellular membranes that separate the reduced cytosol from the oxidized extracellular/luminal milieu. Ongoing studies of these membrane-bounded genome replication complexes have revealed underlying common principles in their structure, assembly and functionalization, including transmembrane features and redox dependencies. Among these, members of the alphavirus, flavivirus, and picornavirus supergroups all encode membrane-permeabilizing viroporins required for efficient RNA replication. For flaviviruses and particularly alphavirus supergroup members, these viroporins are linked to activating viral RNA capping and potentially other later-stage RNA replication functions, and to local transmembrane release of oxidizing potential to trigger these changes in cytoplasmic RNA replication complexes. Further exploration of these emerging shared principles could spur development of broad-spectrum antivirals.

Hijacking of host cellular components as proviral factors by plant-infecting viruses

Plant viruses are important pathogens that cause serious crop losses worldwide. They are obligate intracellular parasites that commandeer a wide array of proteins, as well as metabolic resources, from infected host cells. In the past two decades, our knowledge of plant-virus interactions at the molecular level has exploded, which provides insights into how plant-infecting viruses co-opt host cellular machineries to accomplish their infection. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of how plant viruses divert cellular components from their original roles to proviral functions. One emerging theme is that plant viruses have versatile strategies that integrate a host factor that is normally engaged in plant defense against invading pathogens into a viral protein complex that facilitates viral infection. We also highlight viral manipulation of cellular key regulatory systems for successful virus infection: posttranslational protein modifications for fine control of viral and cellular protein dynamics; glycolysis and fermentation pathways to usurp host resources, and ion homeostasis to create a cellular environment that is beneficial for viral genome replication. A deeper understanding of viral-infection strategies will pave the way for the development of novel antiviral strategies.

Purification and functional characterization of tomato mosaic virus 130K protein expressed in silkworm pupae using a baculovirus vector

Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV; genus, Tobamovirus) is a member of the alpha-like virus superfamily of positive-strand RNA viruses, which includes many plant and animal viruses of agronomical and clinical importance. The genomes of alpha-like viruses encode replication-associated proteins that contain methyltransferase, helicase and/or polymerase domains. The three-dimensional structure of the helicase domain fragment of ToMV has been determined, but the structures of the other domains of alpha-like virus replication proteins are not available. In this study, we expressed full-length ToMV replication-associated protein 130 K, which contains the methyltransferase and helicase domains, using the baculovirus-silkworm expression system and purified the recombinant protein to near homogeneity. Purified 130 K, which was stable in phosphate buffer containing magnesium ions and ATP, formed a dimer in solution and hydrolyzed nucleoside 5'-triphosphates.

Organelle luminal dependence of (+)strand RNA virus replication reveals a hidden druggable target

Positive-strand RNA viruses replicate their genomes in membrane-bounded cytoplasmic complexes. We show that endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-linked genomic RNA replication by brome mosaic virus (BMV), a well-studied member of the alphavirus superfamily, depends on the ER luminal thiol oxidase ERO1. We further show that BMV RNA replication protein 1a, a key protein for the formation and function of vesicular BMV RNA replication compartments on ER membranes, permeabilizes these membranes to release oxidizing potential from the ER lumen. Conserved amphipathic sequences in 1a are sufficient to permeabilize liposomes, and mutations in these sequences simultaneously block membrane permeabilization, formation of a disulfide-linked, oxidized 1a multimer, 1a's RNA capping function, and productive genome replication. These results reveal new transmembrane complexities in positive-strand RNA virus replication, show that-as previously reported for certain picornaviruses and flaviviruses-some alphavirus superfamily members encode viroporins, identify roles for such viroporins in genome replication, and provide a potential new foundation for broad-spectrum antivirals.

Revisiting the Roles of Tobamovirus Replicase Complex Proteins in Viral Replication and Silencing Suppression

Tobamoviral replicase possesses an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR) domain and is translated from genomic (g)RNA via a stop codon readthrough mechanism at a one-to-ten ratio relative to a shorter protein lacking the RDR domain. The two proteins share methyltransferase and helicase domains and form a heterodimer implicated in gRNA replication. The shorter protein is also implicated in suppressing RNA silencing-based antiviral defenses. Using a stop codon mutant of Oilseed rape mosaic tobamovirus (ORMV), we demonstrate that the readthrough replicase (p182) is sufficient for gRNA replication and for subgenomic RNA transcription during systemic infection in Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana. However, the mutant virus displays milder symptoms and does not interfere with HEN1-mediated methylation of viral short interfering (si)RNAs or plant small (s)RNAs. The mutant virus tends to revert the stop codon, thereby restoring expression of the shorter protein (p125), even in the absence of plant Dicer-like activities that generate viral siRNAs. Plant RDR activities that generate endogenous siRNA precursors do not prevent replication or movement of the mutant virus, and double-stranded precursors of viral siRNAs representing the entire virus genome are likely synthesized by p182. Transgenic expression of p125 partially recapitulates the ORMV disease symptoms associated with overaccumulation of plant sRNAs. Taken together, the readthrough replicase p182 is sufficient for viral replication and transcription but not for silencing suppression. By contrast, the shorter p125 protein suppresses silencing, provokes severe disease symptoms, causes overaccumulation of unmethylated viral and plant sRNAs but it is not an essential component of the viral replicase complex.

Mutational analysis of hepatitis E virus ORF1 "Y-domain": Effects on RNA replication and virion infectivity

AIM

To investigate the role of non-structural open reading frame 1 “Y-domain” sequences in the hepatitis E virus (HEV) life cycle.

METHODS

Sequences of human HEV Y-domain (amino acid sequences 216-442) and closely-related viruses were analyzed in silico. Site-directed mutagenesis of the Y-domain (HEV SAR55) was carried out and studied in the replicon-baculovirus-hepatoma cell model. In vitro transcribed mRNA (pSK-GFP) constructs were transfected into S10-3 cells and viral RNA replicating GFP-positive cells were scored by flow cytometry. Mutant virions’ infectivity was assayed on naïve HepG2/C3A cells.

RESULTS

In silico analysis identified a potential palmitoylation-site (C₃₃₆C₃₃₇) and an α-helix segment (L₄₁₀Y₄₁₁S₄₁₂W₄₁₃L₄₁₄F₄₁₅E₄₁₆) in the HEV Y-domain. Molecular characterization of C₃₃₆A, C₃₃₇A and W₄₁₃A mutants of the three universally conserved residues showed non-viability. Further, of the 10 consecutive saturation mutants covering the entire Y-domain nucleotide sequences (nts 650-1339), three constructs (nts 788-994) severely affected virus replication. This revealed the indispensability of the internal sequences but not of the up- or downstream sequences at the transcriptional level. Interestingly, the three mutated residues corresponded to the downstream codons that tolerated saturation mutation, indicating their post-translational functional/structural essentiality. In addition, RNA secondary structure prediction revealed formation of stable hairpins (nts 788-994) where saturation mutation drastically inhibited virion infectivity.

CONCLUSION

This is the first demonstration of the critical role of Y-domain sequences in HEV life cycle, which may involve gene regulation and/or membrane binding in intracellular replication complexes.

Replication of Tobamovirus RNA

Tobacco mosaic virus and other tobamoviruses have served as models for studying the mechanisms of viral RNA replication. In tobamoviruses, genomic RNA replication occurs via several steps: (a) synthesis of viral replication proteins by translation of the genomic RNA; (b) translation-coupled binding of the replication proteins to a 5'-terminal region of the genomic RNA; (c) recruitment of the genomic RNA by replication proteins onto membranes and formation of a complex with host proteins TOM1 and ARL8; (d) synthesis of complementary (negative-strand) RNA in the complex; and (e) synthesis of progeny genomic RNA. This article reviews current knowledge on tobamovirus RNA replication, particularly regarding how the genomic RNA is specifically selected as a replication template and how the replication proteins are activated. We also focus on the roles of the replication proteins in evading or suppressing host defense systems.

Sequence analysis reveals a conserved extension in the capping enzyme of the alphavirus supergroup, and a homologous domain in nodaviruses

Background

Members of the alphavirus supergroup include human pathogens such as chikungunya virus, hepatitis E virus and rubella virus. They encode a capping enzyme with methyltransferase-guanylyltransferase (MTase-GTase) activity, which is an attractive drug target owing to its unique mechanism. However, its experimental study has proven very difficult.

Results

We examined over 50 genera of viruses by sequence analyses. Earlier studies showed that the MTase-GTase contains a “Core” region conserved in sequence. We show that it is followed by a long extension, which we termed “Iceberg” region, whose secondary structure, but not sequence, is strikingly conserved throughout the alphavirus supergroup. Sequence analyses strongly suggest that the minimal capping domain corresponds to the Core and Iceberg regions combined, which is supported by earlier experimental data. The Iceberg region contains all known membrane association sites that contribute to the assembly of viral replication factories. We predict that it may also contain an overlooked, widely conserved membrane-binding amphipathic helix. Unexpectedly, we detected a sequence homolog of the alphavirus MTase-GTase in taxa related to nodaviruses and to chronic bee paralysis virus. The presence of a capping enzyme in nodaviruses is biologically consistent, since they have capped genomes but replicate in the cytoplasm, where no cellular capping enzyme is present. The putative MTase-GTase domain of nodaviruses also contains membrane-binding sites that may drive the assembly of viral replication factories, revealing an unsuspected parallel with the alphavirus supergroup.

Conclusions

Our work will guide the functional analysis of the alphaviral MTase-GTase and the production of domains for structure determination. The identification of a homologous domain in a simple model system, nodaviruses, which replicate in numerous eukaryotic cell systems (yeast, flies, worms, mammals, and plants), can further help crack the function and structure of the enzyme.

Reviewers

This article was reviewed by Valerian Dolja, Eugene Koonin and Sebastian Maurer-Stroh.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13062-015-0050-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Functions of the 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions of tobamovirus RNA

The tobamovirus genome is a 5'-m(7)G-capped RNA that carries a tRNA-like structure at its 3'-terminus. The genomic RNA serves as the template for both translation and negative-strand RNA synthesis. The 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs) of the genomic RNA contain elements that enhance translation, and the 3'-UTR also contains the elements necessary for the initiation of negative-strand RNA synthesis. Recent studies using a cell-free viral RNA translation-replication system revealed that a 70-nucleotide region containing a part of the 5'-UTR is bound cotranslationally by tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) replication proteins translated from the genomic RNA and that the binding leads the genomic RNA to RNA replication pathway. This mechanism explains the cis-preferential replication of TMV by the replication proteins. The binding also inhibits further translation to avoid a fatal ribosome-RNA polymerase collision, which might arise if translation and negative-strand synthesis occur simultaneously on a single genomic RNA molecule. Therefore, the 5'- and 3'-UTRs play multiple important roles in the life cycle of tobamovirus.

Mechanisms of tomato mosaic virus RNA replication and its inhibition by the host resistance factor Tm-1

In the plant immune system, sensor proteins encoded by dominant resistance genes activate a defense response upon pathogen infection. The tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) resistance gene Tm-1 is exceptional in that it inhibits ToMV multiplication without inducing a defense response. Several lines of evidence had suggested that Tm-1 encodes a direct inhibitor of ToMV RNA replication. The Tm-1 gene product was identified by purification of an inhibitor protein using a cell-free translation and replication system for ToMV RNA. Further analyses using the system showed that Tm-1 bound ToMV replication proteins, and that the Tm-1-bound ToMV replication proteins retained the ability to bind membranes, while Tm-1 inhibited replication complex formation on the membranes.

Replication protein of tobacco mosaic virus cotranslationally binds the 5' untranslated region of genomic RNA to enable viral replication

Genomic RNA of positive-strand RNA viruses replicate via complementary (i.e., negative-strand) RNA in membrane-bound replication complexes. Before replication complex formation, virus-encoded replication proteins specifically recognize genomic RNA molecules and recruit them to sites of replication. Moreover, in many of these viruses, selection of replication templates by the replication proteins occurs preferentially in cis. This property is advantageous to the viruses in several aspects of viral replication and evolution, but the underlying molecular mechanisms have not been characterized. Here, we used an in vitro translation system to show that a 126-kDa replication protein of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a positive-strand RNA virus, binds a 5'-terminal ∼70-nucleotide region of TMV RNA cotranslationally, but not posttranslationally. TMV mutants that carried nucleotide changes in the 5'-terminal region and showed a defect in the binding were unable to synthesize negative-strand RNA, indicating that this binding is essential for template selection. A C-terminally truncated 126-kDa protein, but not the full-length 126-kDa protein, was able to posttranslationally bind TMV RNA in vitro, suggesting that binding of the 126-kDa protein to the 70-nucleotide region occurs during translation and before synthesis of the C-terminal inhibitory domain. We also show that binding of the 126-kDa protein prevents further translation of the bound TMV RNA. These data provide a mechanistic explanation of how the 126-kDa protein selects replication templates in cis and how fatal collision between translating ribosomes and negative-strand RNA-synthesizing polymerases on the genomic RNA is avoided.

The resistance protein Tm-1 inhibits formation of a Tomato mosaic virus replication protein-host membrane protein complex

The Tm-1 gene of tomato confers resistance to Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV). Tm-1 encodes a protein that binds ToMV replication proteins and inhibits the RNA-dependent RNA replication of ToMV. The replication proteins of resistance-breaking mutants of ToMV do not bind Tm-1, indicating that the binding is important for inhibition. In this study, we analyzed how Tm-1 inhibits ToMV RNA replication in a cell-free system using evacuolated tobacco protoplast extracts. In this system, ToMV RNA replication is catalyzed by replication proteins bound to membranes, and the RNA polymerase activity is unaffected by treatment with 0.5 M NaCl-containing buffer and remains associated with membranes. We show that in the presence of Tm-1, negative-strand RNA synthesis is inhibited; the replication proteins associate with membranes with binding that is sensitive to 0.5 M NaCl; the viral genomic RNA used as a translation template is not protected from nuclease digestion; and host membrane proteins TOM1, TOM2A, and ARL8 are not copurified with the membrane-bound 130K replication protein. Deletion of the polymerase read-through domain or of the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the genome did not prevent the formation of complexes between the 130K protein and the host membrane proteins, the 0.5 M NaCl-resistant binding of the replication proteins to membranes, and the protection of the genomic RNA from nucleases. These results indicate that Tm-1 binds ToMV replication proteins to inhibit key events in replication complex formation on membranes that precede negative-strand RNA synthesis.