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Hazelrig CM, Gettings JR, Cleveland CA, Varela-Stokes A, Majewska AA, Hubbard K, Burton KW, Yabsley MJ. Spatial and risk factor analyses of vector-borne pathogens among shelter dogs in the Eastern United States. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:197. [PMID: 37301970 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05813-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vector-borne infections pose significant health risks to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) in the United States may be infected with and serve as sentinel hosts for several zoonotic vector-borne pathogens. In this study, we analyzed the geographical distribution, risk factors, and co-infections associated with infection with Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Borrelia burgdorferi, and Dirofilaria immitis in shelter dogs in the Eastern United States. METHODS From 2016 to 2020, blood samples from 3750 shelter dogs from 19 states were examined with IDEXX SNAP® 4Dx® Plus tests to determine the seroprevalence of infection with tick-borne pathogens and infection with D. immitis. We assessed the impact of factors including age, sex, intact status, breed group, and location on infection using logistic regression. RESULTS The overall seroprevalence of D. immitis was 11.2% (n = 419/3750), the seroprevalence of Anaplasma spp. was 2.4% (n = 90/3750), the seroprevalence of Ehrlichia spp. was 8.0% (n = 299/3750), and the seroprevalence of B. burgdorferi was 8.9% (n = 332/3750). Regional variation in seroprevalence was noted: D. immitis (17.4%, n = 355/2036) and Ehrlichia spp. (10.7%, n = 217/2036) were highest in the Southeast while seroprevalence for B. burgdorferi (19.3%, n = 143/740) and Anaplasma spp. (5.7%, n = 42/740) were highest in the Northeast. Overall, 4.8% (n = 179/3750) of dogs had co-infections, the most common of which were D. immitis/Ehrlichia spp. (1.6%, n = 59/3750), B. burgdorferi/Anaplasma spp. (1.5%, n = 55/3750), and B. burgdorferi/Ehrlichia spp. (1.2%, n = 46/3750). Risk factors significantly influenced infection across the evaluated pathogens were location and breed group. All evaluated risk factors were significant for the seroprevalence of D. immitis antigens. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate a regionally variable risk of infection with vector-borne pathogens in shelter dogs throughout the Eastern United States, likely due to varying distributions of vectors. However, as many vectors are undergoing range expansions or other changes in distribution associated with climate and landscape change, continued vector-borne pathogen surveillance is important for maintaining reliable risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna M Hazelrig
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Jenna R Gettings
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Christopher A Cleveland
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Center for Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Andrea Varela-Stokes
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Ania A Majewska
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Kris Hubbard
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA
- West Asheville Family Vet, Asheville, NC, USA
| | - K Wade Burton
- IDEXX Laboratories, One IDEXX Drive, Westbrook, ME, USA
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
- Center for Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
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Diekmann I, Alnassan AA, Globokar M, Pantchev N, Kurzrock L, Hernandez L, Lopez J, Ruano R, Herrero S, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Krücken J. Canine Dracunculus Nematode Infection, Toledo, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:1860-1863. [PMID: 32687046 PMCID: PMC7392431 DOI: 10.3201/eid2608.201661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A fragment of a Dracunculus-like worm was extracted from the hind limb of a 2-year-old dog from Toledo, Spain. Cytochrome oxidase I and rRNA sequences confirmed an autochthonous mammalian Dracunculus worm infection in Europe. Sequence analyses suggest close relation to a parasite obtained from a North American opossum.
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Box EK, Cleveland CA, Garrett KB, Grunert RK, Hutchins K, Majewska AA, Thompson AT, Wyckoff ST, Ehlers C, Yabsley MJ. Copepod consumption by amphibians and fish with implications for transmission of Dracunculus species. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2021; 15:231-237. [PMID: 34189031 PMCID: PMC8217678 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic nematodes in the genus Dracunculus have a complex life cycle that requires more than one host species in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The most well-studied species, Dracunculus medinensis, is the causative agent of human Guinea worm disease (dracunculiasis). There are several other Dracunculus species that infect non-human animals, primarily wildlife (reptiles and mammals). The classic route of D. medinensis transmission to humans is through the ingestion of water containing the intermediate host, a cyclopoid copepod, infected with third-stage larvae (L3s). However, many animal hosts (e.g., terrestrial snakes, dogs) of other Dracunculus sp. appear unlikely to ingest a large number of copepods while drinking. Therefore, alternative routes of infection (e.g., paratenic or transport hosts) may facilitate Dracunculus transmission to these species. To better understand the role of paratenic and transport hosts in Dracunculus transmission to animal definitive hosts, we compared copepod ingestion rates for aquatic species (fish, frogs [tadpoles and adults], and newts) which may serve as paratenic or transport hosts. We hypothesized that fish would consume more copepods than amphibians. Our findings confirm that African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) and fish consume copepods, but that fish ingest, on average, significantly higher numbers (68% [34/50]) than adult African clawed frogs (36% [18/50]) during a 24-h time period. Our results suggest that amphibians and fish may play a role in the transmission of Dracunculus to definitive hosts. Still, additional research is required to determine whether, in the wild, fish or frogs are serving as paratenic or transport hosts. If so, they may facilitate Dracunculus transmission. However, if these animals simply act as dead-end hosts or as means of copepod population control, they may decrease Dracunculus transmission. Copepod ingestion during 24 h was assessed for fish and amphibians. Significant numbers of copepods were consumed by fish and adult Xenopus. Tadpoles and newts did not consume large numbers of copepods during this time. Fish and amphibians may facilitate Dracunculus transmission. Further studies may elucidate how copepod ingestion impact parasite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin K Box
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Christopher A Cleveland
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Kayla B Garrett
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Ryan K Grunert
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Katherine Hutchins
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Ania A Majewska
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, 30322, GA, USA
| | - Alec T Thompson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Seth T Wyckoff
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Coles Ehlers
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA.,Young Scholars Program at the University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602, GA, USA
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Dracunculiasis in a domestic dog in Brazil. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:1371-1377. [PMID: 33624148 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07098-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We report and discuss the surprising encounter of a dog naturally infected by Dracunculus sp. in Brazil, a brief clinical history of the animal and a procedure for removing the nematode. We also present details on the morphology of the fragments collected from the nematode and a phylogenetic comparison of the partial sequences of the mitochondrial 18S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) genes, deposited with others in GenBank. The samples were an independent lineage forming a well-supported monophyletic assemblage with D. medinensis. We thus conclude that this species has not yet been sequenced or even described and will only be elucidated by more information because only two species of Dracunculus have been reported in Brazil, D. fuelleborni and D. brasiliensis.
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Cleveland CA, Eberhard ML, Garrett KB, Thompson AT, Swanepoel L, Miller EA, Stephens OL, Yabsley MJ. Dracunculus Species in Meso-mammals from Georgia, United States, and Implications for the Guinea Worm Eradication Program in Chad, Africa. J Parasitol 2021; 106:616-622. [PMID: 33009554 DOI: 10.1645/18-178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence and diversity of parasitic nematodes in wildlife have been well studied for certain species, yet for others considerable gaps in knowledge exist. The parasitic nematode Dracunculus insignis infects North American wildlife, and past research on this species has led to an increased understanding of the potential host diversity and transmission of the closely related human Guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis (which is currently the focus of a global eradication program). Many definitive hosts have been documented for D. insignis; however, the life cycle has been studied only in laboratories, and only a single phylogenetic study has been conducted on D. insignis (from Canada). The goals of the present study were to investigate the prevalence of infections with Dracunculus species among wildlife at a single site (Di-Lane plantation) in the southeastern United States, evaluate the genetic diversity of parasites at this site, and investigate potential paratenic hosts that may be involved in transmission. Over 3 yr, we sampled 228 meso-mammals, reporting an overall prevalence of infection with Dracunculus insignis of 20% (46/228). Amphibians and fish were sampled in the same geographic area as infected meso-mammals. Dracunculus insignis third-stage larvae were recovered from 2 different species of amphibians, but all fish sampled were negative. Phylogenetic analysis of the partial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene showed very little diversity of Dracunculus at Di-Lane; however, we did recover a single nematode from a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) that falls outside of the D. insignis clade, more closely aligns with Dracunculus lutrae, and may represent an undescribed species. This work documents the occurrence of D. insignis in frogs, a potential transmission pathway for D. insignis at a single geographic site in nature. When applied to the global Guinea Worm Eradication Program, and Chad, Africa, in particular, this work increases our knowledge of the potential role of aquatic animals in the transmission of Dracunculus species and informs on potential intervention strategies that may be applied to the eradication of Guinea worm in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Cleveland
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia 589 D. W. Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, 180 E. Green St., Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Mark L Eberhard
- (Retired) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Kayla B Garrett
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia 589 D. W. Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Alec T Thompson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia 589 D. W. Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Liandrie Swanepoel
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia 589 D. W. Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Elizabeth A Miller
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526
| | - Odin L Stephens
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia 589 D. W. Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, 180 E. Green St., Athens, Georgia 30602
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Gruntmeir JM, Thompson NM, Long MT, Blagburn BL, Walden HDS. Detection of heartworm antigen without cross-reactivity to helminths and protozoa following heat treatment of canine serum. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:71. [PMID: 33482897 PMCID: PMC7821529 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04573-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detection of Dirofilaria immitis, or heartworm, through antigen in sera is the primary means of diagnosing infections in dogs. In recent years, the practice of heat-treating serum prior to antigen testing has demonstrated improved detection of heartworm infection. While the practice of heat-treating serum has resulted in earlier detection and improved sensitivity for heartworm infections, it has been suggested that heat treatment may cause cross reactivity with A. reconditum and intestinal helminth infections of dogs. No studies have assessed the potential cross-reactivity of these parasites with heartworm tests before and after heat treatment using blood products and an appropriate gold standard reference. METHODS Canine sera (n=163) was used to evaluate a heartworm antigen-ELISA (DiroCHEK®) and potential cross-reactivity with common parasitic infections. The heartworm status and additional parasite infections were confirmed by necropsy and adult helminth species verified morphologically or by PCR, and feces evaluated by centrifugal fecal flotation. RESULTS Intestinal parasites were confirmed in 140 of the dogs by necropsy, and 130 by fecal flotation. Acanthocheilonema reconditum microfilariae were confirmed in 22 dogs. Prevalence of heartworm infection confirmed by necropsy was 35.6% (58/163). In the 105 dogs without heartworms, specificity remained unchanged at 100% both before and after heat treatment despite confirmed infections with A. reconditum, Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma brasiliense, Trichuris vulpis, Toxocara canis, Dipylidium caninum, Spirometra mansonoides, Macracanthorynchus ingens, Cystoisospora sp., Giardia sp., and Sarcocystis sp. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that the use of heat treatment improves sensitivity of heartworm tests and is unlikely to cause false positive antigen results due to Acanthocheilonema reconditum, intestinal helminths, and protozoal parasites in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff M Gruntmeir
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Nina M Thompson
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Byron L Blagburn
- Department of Pathobiology, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, 1130 Wire Road, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Heather D S Walden
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Richards RL, Cleveland CA, Hall RJ, Tchindebet Ouakou P, Park AW, Ruiz-Tiben E, Weiss A, Yabsley MJ, Ezenwa VO. Identifying correlates of Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis) infection in domestic dog populations. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008620. [PMID: 32925916 PMCID: PMC7515199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Few human infectious diseases have been driven as close to eradication as dracunculiasis, caused by the Guinea worm parasite (Dracunculus medinensis). The number of human cases of Guinea worm decreased from an estimated 3.5 million in 1986 to mere hundreds by the 2010s. In Chad, domestic dogs were diagnosed with Guinea worm for the first time in 2012, and the numbers of infected dogs have increased annually. The presence of the parasite in a non-human host now challenges efforts to eradicate D. medinensis, making it critical to understand the factors that correlate with infection in dogs. In this study, we evaluated anthropogenic and environmental factors most predictive of detection of D. medinensis infection in domestic dog populations in Chad. Using boosted regression tree models to identify covariates of importance for predicting D. medinensis infection at the village and spatial hotspot levels, while controlling for surveillance intensity, we found that the presence of infection in a village was predicted by a combination of demographic (e.g. fishing village identity, dog population size), geographic (e.g. local variation in elevation), and climatic (e.g. precipitation and temperature) factors, which differed between northern and southern villages. In contrast, the presence of a village in a spatial infection hotspot, was primarily predicted by geography and climate. Our findings suggest that factors intrinsic to individual villages are highly predictive of the detection of Guinea worm parasite presence, whereas village membership in a spatial infection hotspot is largely determined by location and climate. This study provides new insight into the landscape-scale epidemiology of a debilitating parasite and can be used to more effectively target ongoing research and possibly eradication and control efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L. Richards
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Cleveland
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Richard J. Hall
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | | | - Andrew W. Park
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | | | - Adam Weiss
- The Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Vanessa O. Ezenwa
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
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Self SW, Pulaski CN, McMahan CS, Brown DA, Yabsley MJ, Gettings JR. Regional and local temporal trends in the prevalence of canine heartworm infection in the contiguous United States: 2012-2018. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:380. [PMID: 31362754 PMCID: PMC6668072 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3633-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Canine heartworm disease is a potentially fatal disease for which treatment is financially burdensome for many pet owners. Prevention is strongly advocated by the veterinary community along with routine testing for infection during annual wellness examinations. Despite the availability of efficacious chemoprophylaxis, recent reports have suggested that the incidence of heartworm disease in domestic dogs is increasing. Results Using data from tests for heartworm infection in the USA from January 2012 through September 2018, a Bayesian spatio-temporal binomial regression model was used to estimate the regional and local temporal trends of heartworm infection prevalence. The area with the largest increase in regional prevalence was found in the Lower Mississippi River Valley. Regional prevalence increased throughout the southeastern states and northward into Illinois and Indiana. Local (county-level) prevalence varied across the USA, with increasing prevalence occurring along most of the Atlantic coast, central United States, and western states. Clusters of decreasing prevalence were present along the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (a historically endemic area), Oklahoma and Kansas, and Florida. Conclusions Canine heartworm infection prevalence is increasing in much of the USA, both regionally and locally, despite veterinarian recommendations on prevention and testing. Additional steps should be taken to protect dogs, cats and ferrets. Further work is needed to identify the driving factors of the locally decreasing prevalence present along the Mississippi Alluvial plain, Florida, and other areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella W Self
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Cassan N Pulaski
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Christopher S McMahan
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - D Andrew Brown
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Jenna R Gettings
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
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