1
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Cheng J, Wang R, Hu Y, Li M, You L, Wang S. Fermentation-inspired macroporous and tough gelatin/sodium alginate hydrogel for accelerated infected wound healing. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 268:131905. [PMID: 38688346 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Gelatin and sodium alginate (SA) are two important biological macromolecules, exhibiting excellent biocompatibility and gel-forming ability. However, traditional SA and gelatin hydrogel displays limited mass transport, low porosity, instability, and poor mechanical properties extremely restricted their therapeutic effect and application scenarios. Herein, microbial fermentation and synergistic toughening strategies were used for preparing macroporous and tough hydrogel. The study investigated the fermentation and toughening conditions of hydrogel. The hydrogel composed of CaCl2 cross-linked physically network and EDC/NHS cross-linked covalently network, exhibiting significantly improved mechanical properties, and excellent recovery efficiency. In addition, the hydrogel has a hierarchical macroporous structure of 100-500 μm, demonstrating high porosity of 10 times, swelling rate of 1541.0 %, and high mass infiltration capability. Further, after Ag+ treatment, the macroporous hydrogel dressing showed outstanding biocompatibility. Compared with non-porous hydrogel, the resulting macroporous hydrogel dressing displayed high antibacterial and antioxidant properties. It could effectively alleviate intracellular ROS formation induced by H2O2.In vivo experiments indicated that it has significantly better effect than non-porous hydrogel in accelerating wound healing. The overall results suggest that the gelatin/SA-based macroporous and tough hydrogel proposed in this study holds excellent prospects for application in wound dressings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cheng
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Rixuan Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Yanyu Hu
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Mengxuan Li
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Lijun You
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Shaoyun Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering & College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
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2
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Diepenbroek E, Mehta S, Borneman Z, Hempenius MA, Kooij ES, Nijmeijer K, de Beer S. Advances in Membrane Separation for Biomaterial Dewatering. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:4545-4566. [PMID: 38386509 PMCID: PMC10919095 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Biomaterials often contain large quantities of water (50-98%), and with the current transition to a more biobased economy, drying these materials will become increasingly important. Contrary to the standard, thermodynamically inefficient chemical and thermal drying methods, dewatering by membrane separation will provide a sustainable and efficient alternative. However, biomaterials can easily foul membrane surfaces, which is detrimental to the performance of current membrane separations. Improving the antifouling properties of such membranes is a key challenge. Other recent research has been dedicated to enhancing the permeate flux and selectivity. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the design requirements for and recent advances in dewatering of biomaterials using membranes. These recent developments offer a viable solution to the challenges of fouling and suboptimal performances. We focus on two emerging development strategies, which are the use of electric-field-assisted dewatering and surface functionalizations, in particular with hydrogels. Our overview concludes with a critical mention of the remaining challenges and possible research directions within these subfields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esli Diepenbroek
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sarthak Mehta
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Zandrie Borneman
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Mark A. Hempenius
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - E. Stefan Kooij
- Physics
of Interfaces and Nanomaterials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500
AE Enschede, The
Netherlands
| | - Kitty Nijmeijer
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Sissi de Beer
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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3
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Bediako JK, El Ouardi Y, Massima Mouele ES, Mensah B, Repo E. Polyelectrolyte and polyelectrolyte complex-incorporated adsorbents in water and wastewater remediation - A review of recent advances. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 325:138418. [PMID: 36925007 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, polyelectrolyte-incorporated functional materials have emerged as novel adsorbents for effective remediation of pollutants in water and wastewater. Polyelectrolytes (PEs) are a special class of polymers with long chains of repeating charged moieties. Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) are obtained by mixing aqueous solutions of oppositely charged PEs. Herewith, this review discusses recent advances with respect to water and wastewater remediation using PE- and PEC-incorporated adsorbents. The review begins by highlighting some water resources, their pollution sources and available treatment techniques. Next, an overview of PEs and PECs is discussed, highlighting the evolving progress in their processing. Consequently, application of these materials in different facets of water and wastewater remediation, including heavy metal removal, precious metal and rare earth element recovery, desalination, dye and emerging micropollutant removal, are critically reviewed. For water and wastewater remediation, PEs and PECs are mostly applied either in their original forms, as composites or as morphologically-tunable complexes. PECs are deemed superior to other materials owing to their tunability for both cationic and anionic pollutants. Generally, natural and semi-synthetic PEs have been largely applied owing to their low cost, ready availability and eco-friendliness. Except dye removal and desalination of saline water, application of synthetic PEs and PECs is scanty, and hence requires more focus in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Kwame Bediako
- Department of Separation Science, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT), FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland; Department of Food Process Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Youssef El Ouardi
- Department of Separation Science, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT), FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
| | - Emile Salomon Massima Mouele
- Department of Separation Science, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT), FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
| | - Bismark Mensah
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Eveliina Repo
- Department of Separation Science, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT), FI-53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
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4
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Reddy AS, Wanjari VP, Singh SP. Design, synthesis, and application of thermally responsive draw solutes for sustainable forward osmosis desalination: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 317:137790. [PMID: 36626951 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging sustainable desalination technology; however, it is not a stand-alone process and requires an additional step to recover the water or regenerate the draw solute (DS), making it energy extensive. Therefore, incorporating inexpensive energy sources for DS regeneration is a viable solution to compete with reverse osmosis desalination technology. Hence, selecting suitable DS and its regeneration became a crucial research focus in FO desalination. Among various DSs reported, thermally responsive DSs (TRDS) provide an opportunity to integrate low-grade energy sources for DS regeneration. Utilizing such inexpensive energy will reduce fossil fuel energy demand, lower the cost of desalination, and minimize the carbon footprint. Hence, this review explores the TRDS for FO-based desalination with its design, synthesis, and applications. The manuscript has discussed the classification and selection criteria for the DSs, and how traditional and new-generation TRDSs are designed and synthesized from cationic and anionic moieties of ionic liquids, hydrogels, and other chemicals. The manuscript has also given importance to design criteria such as osmotic strength, viscosity, toxicity, and thermal stability for TRDSs. Furthermore, a detailed discussion on the FO performance, energy, and economic aspects of TRDSs has been reviewed, along with a discussion on the possible low-grade energy sources for the recovery of TRDS. Finally, the challenges and future directions for TRDSs have been discussed to drive FO toward sustainable desalination technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sudharshan Reddy
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department (ESED), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Vikram P Wanjari
- Centre for Research in Nanotechnology & Science (CRNTS), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Swatantra P Singh
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department (ESED), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India; Centre for Research in Nanotechnology & Science (CRNTS), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India; Interdisciplinary Program in Climate Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India.
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5
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Cho Y, Kang H. Influence of the anionic structure and central atom of a cation on the properties of LCST-type draw solutes for forward osmosis. RSC Adv 2022; 12:29405-29413. [PMID: 36320770 PMCID: PMC9557740 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra05131a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Thermo-responsive ionic compounds were synthesized to examine if they have a powerful ability to draw solutes for forward osmosis (FO). The investigated compounds were tetrabutylammonium benzenesulfonate, tetrabutylphosphonium benzenesulfonate, tetrabutylammonium 2-naphthalenesulfonate, and tetrabutylphosphonium 2-naphthalenesulfonate (abbreviated as [N4444][BS], [P4444][BS], [N4444][NS], and [P4444][NS]). The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) characteristics of the materials that formed the monocyclic aromatic compound [BS] were not confirmed; however, the LCSTs of others that formed the bicyclic aromatic compound [NS] were confirmed to be approximately 37 °C ([N4444][NS]) and 19 °C ([P4444][NS]) at 20 wt% in aqueous solutions; this is valued in reducing the energy required for recovery of the draw solute. In addition, it suggests that ammonium-based ionic compounds have a higher recovery temperature than phosphonium-based ionic compounds. When an active layer was oriented to a draw solution (AL-DS mode) and using 20 wt% aqueous [N4444][NS] draw solution at room temperature, water and reverse solute fluxes were about 3.07 LMH and 0.58 gMH, respectively. Thus, this is the first study to investigate structural transformations of the anion and central atom of the cation and to examine prospective draw solutes of the FO system in this series. Thermo-responsive ionic compounds having lower critical solution temperature were utilized as a draw solute for eco-sustainable forward osmosis.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeonsu Cho
- BK-21 Four Graduate Program, Department of Chemical Engineering, Dong-A University37 Nakdong-Daero 550 Beon-Gil, Saha-GuBusan 49315Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Kang
- BK-21 Four Graduate Program, Department of Chemical Engineering, Dong-A University37 Nakdong-Daero 550 Beon-Gil, Saha-GuBusan 49315Republic of Korea
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6
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Xu Y, Wang YN, Chong JY, Wang R. Thermo-responsive nonionic amphiphilic copolymers as draw solutes in forward osmosis process for high-salinity water reclamation. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 221:118768. [PMID: 35752097 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Recently, thermo-responsive nonionic amphiphilic copolymers have shown a great potential as forward osmosis (FO) draw solutes for high-salinity water desalination and zero-liquid discharge (ZLD). However, the relationship between the copolymer structural properties and key characteristics as draw solutes, as well as copolymer's chemical stability after regeneration have not been much studied. In this work, we systematically investigated poly (ethylene oxide)-block-poly (propylene oxide)-block-poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) copolymers as draw solute. The results showed that the PEO segments significantly influenced the viscosity, osmotic pressure and lowest phase separation temperature of the copolymer aqueous solutions. Among four commercial copolymers studied, Pluronic® L35 with moderate molecular weight (Mn 1,900 Da), 50% PEO, and relatively high hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) showed the best draw solution (DS) performance. It also showed great stability in physiochemical properties and draw capacity after more than ten cycles of regeneration. On the other hand, despite the fact that membrane fouling was observed due to the use of copolymer DS, the FO flux (∼1.2 L m‒2 h‒1, as similar with the virgin membrane) was not affected when high-salinity feedwater such as seawater RO brine was applied. Overall, our study has provided a more comprehensive understanding on the characteristics of nonionic amphiphilic copolymer DS and showcased the promise of copolymer-driven FO process in high-salinity water desalination and ZLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Xu
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Yi-Ning Wang
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Jeng Yi Chong
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Rong Wang
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore.
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7
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Xu X, Bizmark N, Christie KSS, Datta SS, Ren ZJ, Priestley RD. Thermoresponsive Polymers for Water Treatment and Collection. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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8
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Xu Z, Wu K, Luo H, Wang Q, Zhang TC, Chen X, Rong H, Fang Q. Electro‐responsive
semi‐IPN
hydrogel with enhanced responsive property for forward osmosis desalination. J Appl Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/app.51650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zirong Xu
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
| | - Kelin Wu
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
| | - Huayong Luo
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
| | - Qin Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan China
| | - Tian C. Zhang
- Civil Engineering Department University of Nebraska–Lincoln Omaha Nebraska USA
| | - Xiaobing Chen
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
| | - Hongwei Rong
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
| | - Qian Fang
- School of Civil Engineering Guangzhou University Guangzhou China
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9
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Shi Y, Liao X, Chen R, Ge Q. pH-Responsive Polyoxometalates that Achieve Efficient Wastewater Reclamation and Source Recovery via Forward Osmosis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:12664-12671. [PMID: 34494436 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has been increasingly used for water treatment. However, the lack of suitable draw solutes impedes its further development. Herein, we design pH-responsive polyoxometalates, that is, (NH4)6Mo7O24 and Na6Mo7O24, as draw solutes for simultaneous water reclamation and resource recovery from wastewater via FO. Both polyoxometalates have a cage-like configuration and release multiple ionic species in water. These characteristics allow them to generate high osmotic pressures to drive the FO separation efficiently with negligible reverse solute diffusion. (NH4)6Mo7O24 and Na6Mo7O24 at a dilute concentration (0.4 M) produce water fluxes of 16.4 LMH and 14.2 LMH, respectively, against DI water, outperforming the frequently used commercial NaCl and NH4HCO3 draw solutes, and other synthetic materials. With an average water flux of 10.0 LMH, (NH4)6Mo7O24 reclaims water from the simulated glutathione-containing wastewater more efficiently than Na6Mo7O24 (9.1 LMH), NaCl (3.3 LMH), and NH4HCO3 (5.6 LMH). The final glutathione treated with (NH4)6Mo7O24 and Na6Mo7O24 remains intact but that treated with NaCl and NH4HCO3 is either denatured or contaminated owing to their severe leakage in FO. Remarkably, both polyoxometalates are readily recycled by pH regulation and reused for FO. Polyoxometalate is thus proven to be an appropriate candidate for FO separation in wastewater reclamation and resource recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiru Shi
- College of Environment and Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
| | - Xialu Liao
- College of Environment and Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
| | - Rongzhen Chen
- College of Environment and Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
| | - Qingchun Ge
- College of Environment and Safety Engineering, Fuzhou University, No. 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
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10
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Einarsson SJ, Wu B. Thermal associated pressure-retarded osmosis processes for energy production: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 757:143731. [PMID: 33279189 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is an existential threat to global environments and human life. To achieve global mean temperature rise of below 1.5 °C, increasing utilization of renewable energy and minimizing CO₂ emission from fossil fuel industries have been emphasized by the United Nations. Pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) has displayed its technical feasibility in capturing renewable energy from the salinity gradient of two streams through a semipermeable membrane. Towards achieving economic feasible PRO, process optimization, waste stream/heat utilization, and hybrid PRO processes have been attempted by theoretically modelling and experimental examination. Among these efforts, the thermal associated PRO processes have received great attention due to their improved power generation. In this paper, we aim to provide a comprehensive review on thermal associated PRO processes, focusing on the role of thermal behaviour in both stand-alone PRO and hybrid PRO processes (e.g. PRO-membrane distillation, PRO-thermosiphon, PRO-solar pond). Meanwhile, thermal associated draw solution development has been highlighted. Finally, a combination of PRO with high temperature/high pressure geothermal waste gas as draw solution is proposed and its technical and economic feasibility is discussed, especially under Icelandic scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigurður John Einarsson
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Hjardarhagi 2-6, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Bing Wu
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Hjardarhagi 2-6, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland.
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11
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Recent Developments and Future Challenges of Hydrogels as Draw Solutes in Forward Osmosis Process. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12030692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has been recently regarded as a promising water treatment technology due to its lower energy consumption and lower membrane fouling propensity compared to the reverse osmosis (RO). The absence of suitable draw solute constraints the wide-range application of the FO. Hydrogels are three-dimensional hydrophilic polymer networks that can absorb a huge amount of water. Particularly, stimuli-responsive polymer hydrogels can undergo a reversible volume change or solution-gel phase transition in response to external environmental stimuli, including temperature, light, pressure, solvent composition, and pH. These intrinsic properties indicate the lowest regeneration cost of draw solutes compared to the thermal method and other membrane processes. This review aims to introduce the research progress on hydrogels as draw solutes, clarify the existing problems and point out the further research direction.
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12
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Rabiee H, Jin B, Yun S, Dai S. O2/N2-responsive microgels as functional draw agents for gas-triggering forward osmosis desalination. J Memb Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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13
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Luo H, Wu K, Wang Q, Zhang TC, Lu H, Rong H, Fang Q. Forward osmosis with electro-responsive P(AMPS-co-AM) hydrogels as draw agents for desalination. J Memb Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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14
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Zou S, Smith ED, Lin S, Martin SM, He Z. Mitigation of bidirectional solute flux in forward osmosis via membrane surface coating of zwitterion functionalized carbon nanotubes. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 131:104970. [PMID: 31295643 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.104970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has emerged as a promising membrane technology to yield high-quality reusable water from various water sources. A key challenge to be solved is the bidirectional solute flux (BSF), including reverse solute flux (RSF) and forward solute flux (FSF). Herein, zwitterion functionalized carbon nanotubes (Z-CNTs) have been coated onto a commercial thin film composite (TFC) membrane, resulting in BSF mitigation via both electrostatic repulsion forces induced by zwitterionic functional groups and steric interactions with CNTs. At a coating density of 0.97 g m-2, a significantly reduced specific RSF was observed for multiple draw solutes, including NaCl (55.5% reduction), NH4H2PO4 (83.8%), (NH4)2HPO4 (74.5%), NH4Cl (70.8%), and NH4HCO3 (61.9%). When a synthetic wastewater was applied as the feed to investigate membrane rejection, FSF was notably reduced by using the coated membrane with fewer pollutants leaked to the draw solution, including NH4+-N (46.3% reduction), NO2--N (37.0%), NO3--N (30.3%), K+ (56.1%), PO43--P (100%), and Mg2+ (100%). When fed with real wastewater, a consistent water flux was achieved during semi-continuous operation with enhanced fouling resistance. This study is among the earliest efforts to address BSF control via membrane modification, and the results will encourage further exploration of effective strategies to reduce BSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqiang Zou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ethan D Smith
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Shihong Lin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Stephen M Martin
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Zhen He
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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15
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Hsu CH, Ma C, Bui N, Song Z, Wilson AD, Kostecki R, Diederichsen KM, McCloskey BD, Urban JJ. Enhanced Forward Osmosis Desalination with a Hybrid Ionic Liquid/Hydrogel Thermoresponsive Draw Agent System. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:4296-4303. [PMID: 31459634 PMCID: PMC6648795 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has emerged as a new technology for desalination and exhibits potentials for applications where reverse osmosis is incapable or uneconomical for treating streams with high salinity or fouling propensity. However, most of current draw agents in FO are salts and difficult to be recycled cost- and energy-effectively. In this work, we demonstrate a new and facile approach to efficiently recover water from the FO process with enhanced water purity by using a binary ion liquid/hydrogel system. The hybrid ion liquid/hydrogel draw solution system demonstrated in this work synergistically leverages the thermoresponsive properties of both the ionic liquid (IL) and hydrogel to improve the overall FO performance. Our findings corroborate that the hydrogel mitigates the water flux decline of the IL as the draw agent and provide a ready route to contiguously and effectively regenerate water from the FO process. Such a route allows for an efficient recovery of water from the draw solute/water mixture with enhanced water purity, compared with conventional thermal treating of lower critical solution temperature IL draw solute/water. Furthermore, hydrogels can be used in a continuous and readily recyclable process to recover water without heating the entire draw solute/water mixture. Our design principles open the door to use low-grade/waste heat or solar energy to regenerate draw agents and potentially reduce energy in the FO process considerably.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hao Hsu
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Canghai Ma
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ngoc Bui
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Zhuonan Song
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Aaron D. Wilson
- Idaho
National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1625
MS 2208, Idaho Falls, Idaho 83415, United States
| | - Robert Kostecki
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Kyle M. Diederichsen
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Bryan D. McCloskey
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jeffrey J. Urban
- The
Molecular Foundry and Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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16
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Zou S, Qin M, He Z. Tackle reverse solute flux in forward osmosis towards sustainable water recovery: reduction and perspectives. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 149:362-374. [PMID: 30471532 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has emerged as a potentially energy-efficient membrane treatment technology to yield high-quality reusable water from various wastewater/saline water sources. A key challenge remained to be solved for FO is reverse solute flux (RSF), which can cause issues like reduced concentration gradient and loss of draw solutes. Yet no universal parameters have been developed to compare RSF control performance among various studies, making it difficult to position us in this "battle" against RSF. In this paper, we have conducted a concise review of existing RSF reduction approaches, including operational strategies (e.g., pressure-, electrolysis-, and ultrasound-assisted osmosis) and advanced membrane development (e.g., new membrane fabrication and existing membrane modification). We have also analyzed the literature data to reveal the current status of RSF reduction. A new parameter, mitigation ratio (MR), was proposed and used together with specific RSF (SRSF) to evaluate RSF reduction performance. Potential research directions have been discussed to help with future RSF control. This review intends to shed more light on how to effectively tackle solute leakage towards a more cost-effective and environmental-friendly FO treatment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqiang Zou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Mohan Qin
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale Univeristy, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Zhen He
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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17
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Hartanto Y, Zargar M, Cui X, Jin B, Dai S. Non-ionic copolymer microgels as high-performance draw materials for forward osmosis desalination. J Memb Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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18
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Ju C, Park C, Kim T, Kang S, Kang H. Thermo-responsive draw solute for forward osmosis process; poly(ionic liquid) having lower critical solution temperature characteristics. RSC Adv 2019; 9:29493-29501. [PMID: 35531499 PMCID: PMC9072005 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra04020j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A poly(ionic liquid) having lower critical solution temperature characteristics was synthesized to investigate its suitability as a draw solute for forward osmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changha Ju
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Dong-A University
- Busan 49315
- Republic of Korea
| | - Chanhyuk Park
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Dong-A University
- Busan 49315
- Republic of Korea
| | - Taehyung Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Dong-A University
- Busan 49315
- Republic of Korea
| | - Shinwoo Kang
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Dong-A University
- Busan 49315
- Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Kang
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Dong-A University
- Busan 49315
- Republic of Korea
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19
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Qian W, Texter J, Yan F. Frontiers in poly(ionic liquid)s: syntheses and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 46:1124-1159. [PMID: 28180218 DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00620e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 491] [Impact Index Per Article: 81.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We review recent works on the synthesis and application of poly(ionic liquid)s (PILs). Novel chemical structures, different synthetic strategies and controllable morphologies are introduced as a supplement to PIL systems already reported. The primary properties determining applications, such as ionic conductivity, aqueous solubility, thermodynamic stability and electrochemical/chemical durability, are discussed. Furthermore, the near-term applications of PILs in multiple fields, such as their use in electrochemical energy materials, stimuli-responsive materials, carbon materials, and antimicrobial materials, in catalysis, in sensors, in absorption and in separation materials, as well as several special-interest applications, are described in detail. We also discuss the limitations of PIL applications, efforts to improve PIL physics, and likely future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Qian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Design and Application, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P. R. China.
| | - John Texter
- School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Feng Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Design and Application, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P. R. China.
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20
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Abstract
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) has developed rapidly over the past decade. The development of draw solutes, a key component of FO processes, has also progressed remarkably. A wide range of synthetic draw solutes have been explored in recent years. Synthetic draw solutes exhibit superiority over the conventional draw solutes obtained commercially in terms of lower reverse solute fluxes and less energy consumption in draw solute recycling. However, there are still some big challenges for synthetic draw solutes, such as complicated synthetic procedures, low water fluxes, severe concentration polarization (CP) and decreased water recovery efficiency when recycled draw solutes are reused in FO. These challenges are also the current research focus on the exploration of novel draw solutes. This article aims to review the recent progress especially on synthetic draw solutes. Their design strategies, synthesis routes and FO performance are assessed. Some representative applications involving the synthetic draw solutes-facilitated FO processes are exemplified. The advantages and disadvantages of the existing synthetic draw solutions are evaluated. The challenges and future directions in exploring novel draw solutes are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaozhen Chen
- College of Environment and Resources , Fuzhou University , No. 2 University of New Garden Road , Fujian 350116 , China
| | - Wenxuan Xu
- College of Environment and Resources , Fuzhou University , No. 2 University of New Garden Road , Fujian 350116 , China
| | - Qingchun Ge
- College of Environment and Resources , Fuzhou University , No. 2 University of New Garden Road , Fujian 350116 , China
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21
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Narang P, Vepuri SB, Venkatesu P, Soliman ME. An unexplored remarkable PNIPAM-osmolyte interaction study: An integrated experimental and simulation approach. J Colloid Interface Sci 2017; 504:417-428. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2017.05.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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22
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Ag-loaded thermo-sensitive composite microgels for enhanced catalytic reduction of methylene blue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41204-017-0026-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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23
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Tu KL, Simon GP, Wang H. Fast-responsive monolithic hydrogels as draw agent for forward osmosis membrane process. SEP SCI TECHNOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2017.1310237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kha L. Tu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - George P. Simon
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Huanting Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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24
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Thermoresponsive cationic copolymer microgels as high performance draw agents in forward osmosis desalination. J Memb Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2016.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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25
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26
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Wei J, Low ZX, Ou R, Simon GP, Wang H. Hydrogel-polyurethane interpenetrating network material as an advanced draw agent for forward osmosis process. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 96:292-298. [PMID: 27061152 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Water desalination and purification are critical to address the global issue of the shortage of clean water. Forward osmosis (FO) desalination is an emerging low-cost technology for clean water production from saline water. The lack of a suitable draw agent is one of hurdle for the commercialization of FO desalination technology. Recently, the thermoresponsive hydrogel has been demonstrated to be a potential draw agent for the FO process. However, the commonly used hydrogel powder shows a much lower flux than other kind of draw agent such as inorganic salts. In this work, a hydrogel-polyurethane interpenetrating network (HPIPN) with monolith form was prepared by controlling the radical polymerization of the monomers (N-isopropylacrylamide and sodium acrylate) in the macropores (∼400 μm) of commercial polyurethane foam (PUF). These HPIPN composites show a flux as high as 17.9 LMH, which is nearly 8 times than that of hydrogel powders (2.2 LMH). The high flux is attributed to the 3-D continuous hydrogel-polyurethane interpenetrating network, which can effectively enhance the water transport inside the monolith.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wei
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Ze-Xian Low
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Ranwen Ou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - George P Simon
- Department of Materials Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Huanting Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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27
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Fan X, Liu H, Gao Y, Zou Z, Craig VSJ, Zhang G, Liu G. Forward-Osmosis Desalination with Poly(Ionic Liquid) Hydrogels as Smart Draw Agents. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2016; 28:4156-4161. [PMID: 27007083 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201600205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The combination of high desalination efficiency, negligible draw-solute leakage, nontoxicity, ease of regeneration, and effective separation to produce liquid water makes the smart draw agents developed here highly suited for forward-osmosis desalination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelin Fan
- Department of Chemical Physics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
| | - Huili Liu
- Department of Chemical Physics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
| | - Yating Gao
- Department of Chemical Physics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
| | - Zhu Zou
- Department of Chemical Physics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
| | - Vincent S J Craig
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Research School of Physics and Engineering, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
| | - Guangzhao Zhang
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
| | - Guangming Liu
- Department of Chemical Physics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
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28
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Hartanto Y, Zargar M, Wang H, Jin B, Dai S. Thermoresponsive Acidic Microgels as Functional Draw Agents for Forward Osmosis Desalination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:4221-4228. [PMID: 27055090 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Thermoresponsive microgels with carboxylic acid functionalization have been recently introduced as an attractive draw agent for forward osmosis (FO) desalination, where the microgels showed promising water flux and water recovery performance. In this study, various comonomers containing different carboxylic acid and sulfonic acid functional groups were copolymerized with N-isopropylacrylamide (NP) to yield a series of functionalized thermoresponsive microgels possessing different acidic groups and hydrophobicities. The purified microgels were examined as the draw agents for FO application, and the results show the response of water flux and water recovery was significantly affected by various acidic comonomers. The thermoresponsive microgel with itaconic acid shows the best overall performance with an initial water flux of 44.8 LMH, water recovery up to 47.2% and apparent water flux of 3.1 LMH. This study shows that the incorporation of hydrophilic dicarboxylic acid functional groups into the microgels leads to the enhancement on water adsorption and overall performance. Our work elucidates in detail on the structure-property relationship of thermoresponsive microgels in their applications as FO draw agents and would be beneficial for future design and development of high performance FO desalination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusak Hartanto
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Masoumeh Zargar
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Haihui Wang
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Jin
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Sheng Dai
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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29
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A comprehensive review of hybrid forward osmosis systems: Performance, applications and future prospects. J Memb Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2015.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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30
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Qi X, Wei W, Li J, Zuo G, Hu X, Zhang J, Dong W. Development of novel hydrogels based on Salecan and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-methacrylic acid) for controlled doxorubicin release. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra10716h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We designed a novel semi-interpenetrating polymer network hydrogel for the controlled delivery of doxorubicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Qi
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Wei Wei
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Junjian Li
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Gancheng Zuo
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Xinyu Hu
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Jianfa Zhang
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Wei Dong
- Center For Molecular Metabolism
- Nanjing University of Science & Technology
- Nanjing
- China
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31
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Thermodynamic analysis of energy density in pressure retarded osmosis: The impact of solution volumes and costs. J Memb Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2015.03.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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32
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Cai Y, Wang R, Krantz WB, Fane AG, Hu X‘M. Exploration of using thermally responsive polyionic liquid hydrogels as draw agents in forward osmosis. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra19018e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Thermally responsive hydrogels based on ionic liquid monomers were prepared by bulk polymerization in the presence of a crosslinker, and explored as draw agents in forward osmosis for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufeng Cai
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 639798
- Nanyang Environmental & Water Research Institute
- Singapore
| | - Rong Wang
- Nanyang Environmental & Water Research Institute
- Singapore
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 639798
| | - William B. Krantz
- Nanyang Environmental & Water Research Institute
- Singapore
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- University of Colorado
- USA
| | - Anthony G. Fane
- Nanyang Environmental & Water Research Institute
- Singapore
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 639798
| | - Xiao ‘Matthew’ Hu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 639798
- Nanyang Environmental & Water Research Institute
- Singapore
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