Longitudinal monitoring of sex steroid hormones in excrement of spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri)

Seasonal changes in steroid and thyroid hormone content in shed skins of the tegu lizard Salvator merianae

Sampling blood for endocrine analysis from some species may not be practical or ethical. Quantification of hormones extracted from nontypical sample types, such as keratinized tissues, offers a less invasive alternative to the traditional collection and analysis of blood. Here, we aimed to validate assays by using parallelism and accuracy tests for quantification of testosterone, corticosterone, progesterone, and triiodothyronine (T₃) in shed skins of tegu lizards. We assessed whether hormone content of sheds varied across one year similar to what was previously detected in plasma samples. In addition, we aimed to identify the phase relationship between hormone levels of shed skin and plasma levels obtained from the same animals. High frequency of shedding occurred during the active season for tegus (spring/summer), while shedding ceased during hibernation (winter). All hormones measured in shed skins exhibited seasonal changes in concentration. Levels of testosterone in shed skins of male tegus correlated positively with plasma testosterone levels, while corticosterone in both males and females exhibited an inverse relationship between sample types for the same month of collection. An inverse relationship was found when accounting for a lag time of 3 and 4 months between sheds and plasma testosterone. These results indicate that endocrine content of sheds may be confounded by factors (i.e., seasons, environmental temperature, thermoregulatory behavior, among others) that affect frequency of molting, skin blood perfusion, and therefore hormone transfer from the bloodstream and deposition in sheds of squamates.

Seasonal changes in plasma concentrations of the thyroid, glucocorticoid and reproductive hormones in the tegu lizard Salvator merianae

The tegu lizard Salvator merianae is a large, widely distributed teiid lizard endemic to South America that exhibits annual cycles of high activity during the spring and summer, and hibernation during winter. This pattern of activity and hibernation is accompanied by profound seasonal changes in physiology and behavior, including endothermy during the austral spring. The unusual combination of seasonal endothermy, hibernation and oviparity, in a non-avian, non-mammalian species, makes S. merianae an interesting subject for study of comparative aspects of endocrine regulation of seasonal changes in physiology. In the present study, we first validated commercially available immunoassay kits for quantification of hormone concentrations of the reproductive (testosterone, estradiol and progesterone), adrenal (corticosterone), and thyroid [thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃)] axes in plasma of an outdoor, captive adult male and female S. merianae in southeastern Brazil. All assays exhibited parallelism and accuracy with S. merianae plasma. We next assessed patterns of concentration of these hormones across the annual cycle of S. merianae. Testosterone in males and estradiol in females peaked in spring coincident with the peak in reproductive behavior. Progesterone in females was significantly elevated in October coincident with putative ovulation when gravid females build nests. Thyroid hormones, known for regulating energy metabolism, varied seasonally with some sex-dependent differences. T₄ gradually increased from an annual nadir during pre-hibernation and hibernation to high concentrations during spring in both sexes. In contrast, T₃ did not vary seasonally in males, but females showed a two-fold increase in T₃ during the spring reproductive season. T₃ may be involved in energy investment during the seasonal production of large clutches of eggs. Corticosterone was significantly elevated during the active season in both sexes, suggesting its involvement in mobilization of energy stores and modulation of behavior (territoriality) and physiology. Ours is the first investigation of concurrent changes in reproductive, thyroid and adrenal hormone concentrations in this endemic and physiologically unique South American lizard. Our findings set the stage for future investigations to determine the extent to which these hormones influence activity and thermoregulation in S. merianae.

Enhanced GABAergic inhibition in the premammillary nucleus of photorefractory turkey hens via GABAA receptor upregulation

The premammillary nucleus (PMM) of the turkey mediobasal hypothalamus, where dopamine-melatonin (DA-Mel) neurons are localized, is a site for photoreception and photoperiodic time measurement, which is essential for the initiation of avian reproductive seasonality. In addition, this area could also be responsible for the onset and maintenance of photorefractoriness at the end of the breeding season due to the enhanced inhibitory effect of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system which interferes with the photosexual response in the turkey, a seasonally breeding bird. Here, we further characterized the GABAA receptor subunits in the PMM DA-Mel neurons related to reproductive seasonality and the onset of photorefractoriness. GABAA receptor subunits and GABA synthesis enzymes in the PMM of photosensitive and photorefractory turkey hens were identified using real-time qRT-PCR. The upregulation of GABAA receptor α1-3, β2-3, γ1-3, ρ1-3, δ, and θ mRNA expression were observed in the PMM of photorefractory birds when compared to those of photosensitive ones while there is no change observed in the GABA synthesis enzymes, glutamate decarboxylase 1 and 2. Those upregulated GABAA receptor subunits were further examined using immunohistochemical staining and they appeared to be co-localized within the PMM DA-Mel neurons. The upregulation of GABAA receptor subunits observed in the PMM of photorefractory birds coincides with a lack of responsiveness to a light stimulus provided during the photosensitive phase. This is supported by the absence of c-fos induction and TH upregulation in the PMM and a subsequence inhibition of c-fos and GnRH-I expression in the nucleus commissurae pallii. The augmented GABAA receptor subunits expression may mediate an enhancement of inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission and the subsequent interference with the photosexual response. This could contribute to the state of photorefractoriness and the termination of breeding activities in the turkey, a temperate zone bird.