Impairment of microvascular angiogenesis is associated with delay in prostatic development in rat offspring of maternal protein malnutrition

Maternal malnutrition associated with postnatal sugar consumption increases inflammatory response and prostate disorders in rat offspring

Maternal malnutrition can alter developmental biology, programming health and disease in offspring. The increase in sugar consumption during the peripubertal period, a worldwide concern, also affects health through adulthood. Studies have shown that maternal exposure to a low protein diet (LPD) is associated with an increase in prostate disease with aging. However, the combined effects of maternal LPD and early postnatal sugar consumption on offspring prostate disorders were not investigated. The effects on aging were evaluated using a maternal gestational model with lactational LPD (6% protein) and sugar consumption (10%) from postnatal day (PND) 21-90, associating the consequences on ventral prostate (VP) rats morphophysiology on PND540. An increase was shown in mast cells and in the VP of the CTR + SUG and Gestational and Lactational Low Protein (GLLP) groups. In GLLP + SUG, a significant increase was shown in TGF-β1 expression in both the systemic and intra-prostatic forms, and SMAD2/3p had increased. The study identified maternal LPD and sugar consumption as risk factors for prostatic homeostasis in senility, activating the TGFβ1-SMAD2/3 pathway, a signaling pathway with potential markers for prostatic disorders.

Deregulation of ABCG1 early in life contributes to prostate carcinogenesis in maternally malnourished offspring rats

AIMS

The developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept has provided the framework to assess how early life experiences can shape health and disease throughout the life course. Using a model of maternal exposure to a low protein diet (LPD; 6% protein) during the gestational and lactational periods, we demonstrated changes in the ventral prostate (VP) transcriptomic landscape in young rats exposed to maternal malnutrition. Male offspring Sprague Dawley rats were submitted to maternal malnutrition during gestation and lactation, and they were weighed, and distance anogenital was measured, followed were euthanized by an overdose of anesthesia at 21 postnatal days. Next, the blood and the ventral prostate (VP) were collected and processed by morphological analysis, biochemical and molecular analyses. RNA-seq analysis identified 411 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the VP of maternally malnourished offspring compared to the control group. The molecular pathways enriched by these DEGs are related to cellular development, differentiation, and tissue morphogenesis, all of them involved in both normal prostate development and carcinogenesis. Abcg1 was commonly deregulated in young and old maternally malnourished offspring rats, as well in rodent models of prostate cancer (PCa) and in PCa patients. Our results described ABCG1 as a potential DOHaD gene associated with perturbation of prostate developmental biology with long-lasting effects on carcinogenesis in old offspring rats. A better understanding of these mechanisms may help with the discussion of preventive strategies against early life origins of non-communicable chronic diseases.

Early-life origin of prostate cancer through deregulation of miR-206 networks in maternally malnourished offspring rats

The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept has provided the framework to assess how early life experiences can shape health and disease throughout the life course. While maternal malnutrition has been proposed as a risk factor for the developmental programming of prostate cancer (PCa), the molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Using RNA-seq data, we demonstrated deregulation of miR-206-Plasminogen (PLG) network in the ventral prostate (VP) of young maternally malnourished offspring. RT-qPCR confirmed the deregulation of the miR-206-PLG network in the VP of young and old offspring rats. Considering the key role of estrogenic signaling pathways in prostate carcinogenesis, in vitro miRNA mimic studies also revealed a negative correlation between miR-206 and estrogen receptor α (ESR1) expression in PNT2 cells. Together, we demonstrate that early life estrogenization associated with the deregulation of miR-206 networks can contribute to the developmental origins of PCa in maternally malnourished offspring. Understanding the molecular mechanisms by which early life malnutrition affects offspring health can encourage the adoption of a governmental policy for the prevention of non-communicable chronic diseases related to the DOHaD concept.

Maternal exposure of rats to sodium saccharin during gestation and lactation on male offspring†

We investigated the effects of fetal programming in Sprague-Dawley rats through the maternal consumption of sodium saccharin on the testicular structure and function in male offspring. Feed intake and efficiency, organ and fat weight, quantification and expression of androgen receptor (AR), and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) proteins, sperm count, and hormone levels were determined. Consumption alterations were found in the final weeks of the experiment. Decreases in AR and PCNA expression and quantification, tubular diameter, and luminal volume, and increases in epithelial and interstitial relative volumes were observed. Lower sperm count and transit, and lower estradiol concentration were also found. Sodium saccharin consumption by dams programmed male offspring by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis with alterations in the Sertoli cell population, in spermatogonia proliferation, the expression and quantification of AR, and in sperm count. We hypothesized that these changes may be due to an estradiol reduction that caused the loosening of adhesion junctions of the blood-testis barrier, causing cell losses during spermatogenesis, also reflected by a decrease in tubular diameter with an increase in epithelial volume and consequent decrease in luminal volume. We conclude that maternal sodium saccharin consumption during pregnancy and lactation programmed alterations in the reproductive parameters of male offspring, thus influencing spermatogenesis.

Diagnostic gene biomarkers for predicting immune infiltration in endometriosis

Objective

To determine the potential diagnostic markers and extent of immune cell infiltration in endometriosis (EMS).

Methods

Two published profiles (GSE7305 and GSE25628 datasets) were downloaded, and the candidate biomarkers were identified by support vector machine recursive feature elimination analysis and a Lasso regression model. The diagnostic value and expression levels of biomarkers in EMS were verified by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blotting, then further validated in the GSE5108 dataset. CIBERSORT was used to estimate the composition pattern of immune cell components in EMS.

Results

One hundred and fifty-three differential expression genes (DEGs) were identified between EMS and endometrial with 83 upregulated and 51 downregulated genes. Gene sets related to arachidonic acid metabolism, cytokine–cytokine receptor interactions, complement and coagulation cascades, chemokine signaling pathways, and systemic lupus erythematosus were differentially activated in EMS compared with endometrial samples. Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) and ZW10 binding protein (ZWINT) were identified as diagnostic markers of EMS, which were verified using qRT-PCR and western blotting and validated in the GSE5108 dataset. Immune cell infiltrate analysis showed that AQP1 and ZWINT were correlated with M2 macrophages, NK cells, activated dendritic cells, T follicular helper cells, regulatory T cells, memory B cells, activated mast cells, and plasma cells.

Conclusion

AQP1 and ZWINT could be regarded as diagnostic markers of EMS and may provide a new direction for the study of EMS pathogenesis in the future.

Maternal Protein Restriction Alters the Expression of Proteins Related to the Structure and Functioning of the Rat Offspring Epididymis in an Age-Dependent Manner

Nutrition is an environmental factor able to activate physiological interactions between fetus and mother. Maternal protein restriction is able to alter sperm parameters associated with epididymal functions. Since correct development and functioning of the epididymides are fundamental for mammalian reproductive success, this study investigated the effects of maternal protein restriction on epididymal morphology and morphometry in rat offspring as well as on the expression of Src, Cldn-1, AR, ER, aromatase p450, and 5α-reductase in different stages of postnatal epididymal development. For this purpose, pregnant females were allocated to normal-protein (NP—17% protein) and low-protein (LP—6% protein) groups that received specific diets during gestation and lactation. After weaning, male offspring was provided only normal-protein diet until the ages of 21, 44, and 120 days, when they were euthanized and their epididymides collected. Maternal protein restriction decreased genital organs weight as well as crown-rump length and anogenital distance at all ages. Although the low-protein diet did not change the integrity of the epididymal epithelium, we observed decreases in tubular diameter, epithelial height and luminal diameter of the epididymal duct in 21-day-old LP animals. The maternal low-protein diet changed AR, ERα, ERβ, Src 416, and Src 527 expression in offspring epididymides in an age-dependent manner. Finally, maternal protein restriction increased Cldn-1 expression throughout the epididymides at all analyzed ages. Although some of these changes did not remain until adulthood, the insufficient supply of proteins in early life altered the structure and functioning of the epididymis in important periods of postnatal development.

Effects of maternal branched-chain amino acid and alanine supplementation on growth and biomarkers of protein metabolism in dams fed a low-protein diet and their offspring

A considerable number of studies have reported that maternal protein restriction may disturb fetal growth and organ development due to a lower availability of amino acids. Leucine, one of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) promotes protein synthesis through mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling. Here, we investigated the effects of BCAA supplementation in the dams fed a low-protein diet on serum and hepatic biochemical parameters of protein metabolism of dams and their offspring. Female ICR mice were fed a control (20% casein), a low-protein (10% casein), a low-protein with 2% BCAAs or a low-protein with 2% alanine diet for 2 weeks before mating and then throughout pregnancy and lactation. Alanine was used as an amino nitrogen control for the BCAA. Dams and their male offspring were sacrificed at postnatal day 21. There were no changes in body weight and fat mass in low-protein fed dams; however, BCAA supplementation significantly increased fat mass and serum leptin levels. Low-protein diet consumption reduced maternal protein synthesis based on biochemical analysis of serum albumin and hepatic protein levels and immunoblotting of S6 protein, which were increased by BCAA and alanine supplementation. Offspring from dams fed a low-protein diet exhibited lower body and organ weights. Body weight and hepatic protein levels of the offspring were increased by alanine supplementation. However, the decreased serum biochemical parameters, including glucose, triglyceride, total protein and albumin levels in the low-protein offspring group were not changed in response to BCAA or alanine supplementation. A reduced density of the hepatic vessel system in the offspring from dams fed a low-protein diet was restored in the offspring from dams fed either BCAA and alanine-supplemented diet. These results suggest that supplementation of amino nitrogen per se may be responsible for inducing hepatic protein synthesis in the dams fed a low-protein diet and alleviating the distorted growth and liver development of their offspring.

Maternal Low-Protein Diet Deregulates DNA Repair and DNA Replication Pathways in Female Offspring Mammary Gland Leading to Increased Chemically Induced Rat Carcinogenesis in Adulthood

Studies have shown that maternal malnutrition, especially a low-protein diet (LPD), plays a key role in the developmental mechanisms underlying mammary cancer programming in female offspring. However, the molecular pathways associated with this higher susceptibility are still poorly understood. Thus, this study investigated the adverse effects of gestational and lactational low protein intake on gene expression of key pathways involved in mammary tumor initiation after a single dose of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) in female offspring rats. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a normal-protein diet (NPD) (17% protein) or LPD (6% protein) from gestational day 1 to postnatal day (PND) 21. After weaning (PND 21), female offspring (n = 5, each diet) were euthanized for histological analysis or received NPD (n = 56 each diet). At PND 28 or 35, female offspring received a single dose of MNU (25 mg/kg body weight) (n = 28 each diet/timepoint). After 24 h, some females (n = 10 each diet/timepoint) were euthanized for histological, immunohistochemical, and molecular analyses at PDN 29 or 36. The remaining animals (n = 18 each diet/timepoint) were euthanized when tumors reached ≥2 cm or at PND 250. Besides the mammary gland development delay observed in LPD 21 and 28 groups, the gene expression profile demonstrated that maternal LPD deregulated 21 genes related to DNA repair and DNA replication pathways in the mammary gland of LPD 35 group after MNU. We further confirmed an increased γ-H2AX (DNA damage biomarker) and in ER-α immunoreactivity in mammary epithelial cells in the LPD group at PND 36. Furthermore, these early postnatal events were followed by significantly higher mammary carcinogenesis susceptibility in offspring at adulthood. Thus, the results indicate that maternal LPD influenced the programming of chemically induced mammary carcinogenesis in female offspring through increase in DNA damage and deregulation of DNA repair and DNA replication pathways. Also, Cidea upregulation gene in the LPD 35 group may suggest that maternal LPD could deregulate genes possibly leading to increased risk of mammary cancer development and/or poor prognosis. These findings increase the body of evidence of early-transcriptional mammary gland changes influenced by maternal LPD, resulting in differential response to breast tumor initiation and susceptibility and may raise discussions about lifelong prevention of breast cancer risk.

Mucinous metaplasia in Pten conditional knockout mice and mucin family genes as prognostic markers for prostate cancer

AIMS

This study evaluated the association of mucinous metaplasia (MM) with tumor cell proliferation, androgen receptor (AR) expression and invasiveness in Pten conditional knockout mice and the prognostic value of MM markers for patients with PCa.

MAIN METHODS

Prostatic lobes samples from genetic engineered mouse model Pten^f/f and Pb-Cre4/Pten^f/f were submitted for histopathological analysis and tissue expression of AR, the proliferation marker Ki67, alpha-smooth muscle actin, and laminin. RNAseq data of prostatic lobes samples were analyzed searching for MM gene expression patterns. We also investigated gene and protein expression related to MM in human PCa public databases.

KEY FINDINGS

All knockout animals analyzed showed at least one area of stroma-invading MM, which was absent in the control animals. The tumoral regions of MM showed a proliferative index 5 times higher than other tumoral areas and low expression of the AR (less than 20% of the cells were AR-positive). Disrupted basement membrane areas were observed in MM. The mouse and human PCa transcriptomes exhibited increased expression of the MM markers such as MUC1, MUC19, MUC4, MUC5AC, MUC5B, and TFF3. Gene expression profile was associated with castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and with a lower probability of freedom from biochemical recurrence.

SIGNIFICANCE

The expression of goblet cell genes, such as MUC1, MUC5AC, MUC5B, and TFF3 have significant prognostic value for PCa patients and represent another class of potential therapeutic targets.

Identification of potential molecular pathways involved in prostate carcinogenesis in offspring exposed to maternal malnutrition

The developmental origins of health and disease concept links adult diseases with early-life exposure to inappropriate environmental conditions. Intrauterine and postnatal malnutrition may lead to an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases. Maternal malnutrition (MM) has also been associated with prostate carcinogenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms associated with this condition remain poorly understood. Using a proteomic analysis, we demonstrated that MM changed the levels of proteins associated with growth factors, estrogen signaling, detoxification, and energy metabolism in the prostate of both young and old rats. These animals also showed increased levels of molecular markers of endoplasmic reticulum function and histones. We further performed an in silico analysis that identified commonly deregulated proteins in the ventral prostate of old rats submitted to MM with a mouse model and patients with prostate cancer. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that estrogenic signaling pathways, endoplasmic reticulum functions, energy metabolism, and molecular sensors of protein folding and Ca2+ homeostasis, besides histone, and RAS-GTPase family appear to be involved in this process. Knowledge of these factors may raise discussions regarding the role of maternal dietary intervention as a public policy for the lifelong prevention of chronic diseases.

Fetal Head Growth during Early to Mid-Gestation Associated with Weight Gain in Mothers with Hyperemesis Gravidarum: A Retrospective Cohort Study

The epigenetic impact of malnutrition in mothers with hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) on their offspring has not been fully elucidated. Recently, several reports have demonstrated that children born to mothers with HG were small for gestational age and had low birth weight, reduced insulin sensitivity, and neurodevelopmental delays during childhood. Therefore, we examined the relationship between fetal growth and changes in the maternal body weight in HG cases. A total of 34 patients with HG were hospitalized and delivered at term between 2009 and 2012. The records of 69 cases of pregnant women without a history of HG were extracted after matching their maternal age, parity, pregestational body mass index (BMI), gestational age, and fetal sex ratio with those of the HG group for comparison. The maternal weight gain at term was less in the HG than in the control group. There was no statistical difference in birth weight, placental weight, and ultrasonic fetometric parameters expressed in standard deviation (SD) scores, including biparietal diameter, abdominal circumference, and femur length, between the HG and the control group. Whereas fetal head growth in the HG group was positively associated with maternal weight gain at 20 weeks of gestation only, this association was not observed in the control group. We herein demonstrate that maternal weight gain from the nadir is associated with fetal head growth at mid-gestation. Thus, maternal undernutrition in the first trimester of pregnancy could affect fetal brain growth and development, leading to an increased risk of neurodevelopmental delays in later life.

Impact of gestational low protein diet and postnatal bisphenol A exposure on chemically induced mammary carcinogenesis in female offspring rats

This study evaluated the effect of gestational low protein diet (LPD) and/or postnatal bisphenol A (BPA) exposure on mammary gland development and carcinogenesis in female offspring. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a normal protein diet (NPD, 17% protein) or LPD (6% protein). At weaning, female offspring were distributed in four groups (NPD, LPD, NPD + BPA, and LPD + BPA) and received vehicle or BPA in drinking water (0.1%), during postnatal day (PND) 21 to 51. On PND 51, some female offspring were euthanized or received a single dose of 7,12-dimethylbenzoanthracene (DMBA, 30 mg/kg, i.g.) and were euthanized on PND 250. On PND 51, neither gestational LPD nor postnatal BPA exposure, individually or in combination, significantly altered the development of mammary gland tree, mean number of terminal structures or estrogen receptor beta (ER-β), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) or caspase-3 protein expression in the mammary tissue. A significant reduction in mammary epithelial area (%) was observed in both LPD groups and a significant increase in ER-α protein expression was detected only in LPD group. In LPD + BPA group was observed a significant increase in both fat pad area (%) and in mean number of mammary epithelial cells positive for progesterone receptor (PR). On PND 250, the groups that received BPA presented lower latency and higher tumor incidence and tumor multiplicity and LPD + BPA group more aggressive tumors. These findings suggest that postnatal BPA exposure associated with gestational LPD is able to induce morphological changes in the mammary gland and increase susceptibility to mammary carcinogenesis.

Maternal Protein Restriction Modulates Angiogenesis and AQP9 Expression Leading to a Delay in Postnatal Epididymal Development in Rat

The maternal nutritional status is essential to the health and well-being of the fetus. Maternal protein restriction during the perinatal stage causes sperm alterations in the offspring that are associated with epididymal dysfunctions. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor, VEGFr-2, as well as aquaporins (AQPs) are important regulators of angiogenesis and the epididymal microenvironment and are associated with male fertility. We investigated the effects of maternal protein restriction on epididymal angiogenesis and AQP expression in the early stages of postnatal epididymal development. Pregnant rats were divided into two experimental groups that received either a normoprotein (17% protein) or low-protein diet (6% protein) during gestation and lactation. At postnatal day (PND)7 and PND14, male offspring were euthanized, the epididymides were subjected to morphometric and microvascular density analyses and to VEGF-A, VEGF-r2, AQP1 and AQP9 expression analyses. The maternal low-protein diet decreased AQP9 and VEGFr-2 expression, decreased epididymal microvascularity and altered the morphometric features of the epididymal epithelium; no changes in AQP1 expression were observed at the beginning of postnatal epididymal development. Maternal protein restriction alters microvascularization and affects molecules involved in the epidydimal microenvironment, resulting in morphometric alterations related to a delay in the beginning of epididymis postnatal development.

Maternal protein restriction differentially alters the expression of AQP1, AQP9 and VEGFr-2 in the epididymis of rat offspring

Background: Maternal protein restriction causes sperm alterations in the offspring, most of which are associated with epididymal functions. Because fluid reabsorption/secretion dynamics in the epididymal environment play important roles in the process of sperm maturation and concentration, we investigated the effects of maternal protein restriction on the expression of aquaporins (AQP1 and AQP9), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFa), and its receptor VEGFr-2 in different stages of postnatal epididymal development. Methods: Pregnant rats were divided into groups that received normoprotein (17% protein) and low-protein diets (6% protein) during gestation and lactation. After weaning, male rats only received the standard diet and were euthanized at the predetermined ages of 21, 44 and 120 days. Results: Maternal protein restriction decreased AQP1 and AQP9 expression in the initial segment and caput epididymis compared to the increased expression of these proteins observed in the corpus and cauda at all ages. Although protein restriction reduced the microvasculature density (MVD) on postnatal day (PND) 21 and 44, the MVD was unaltered on PND 120. Conclusions: Maternal protein restriction changed the structure or function of the offspring’s epididymis, specifically by affecting fluid dynamics and vasculogenesis in important stages of epididymis development.

Maternal protein malnutrition: effects on prostate development and adult disease

Well-controlled intrauterine development is an essential condition for many aspects of normal adult physiology and health. This process is disrupted by poor maternal nutrition status during pregnancy. Indeed, physiological adaptations occur in the fetus to ensure nutrient supply to the most vital organs at the expense of the others, leading to irreversible consequences in tissue formation and differentiation. Evidence indicates that maternal undernutrition in early life promotes changes in key hormones, such as glucocorticoids, growth hormones, insulin-like growth factors, estrogens and androgens, during fetal development. These alterations can directly or indirectly affect hormone release, hormone receptor expression/distribution, cellular function or tissue organization, and impair tissue growth, differentiation and maturation to exert profound long-term effects on the offspring. Within the male reproductive system, maternal protein malnutrition alters development, structure, and function of the gonads, testes and prostate gland. Consequently, these changes impair the reproductive capacity of the male offspring. Further, permanent alterations in the prostate gland occur at the molecular and cellular level and thereby affect the onset of late life diseases such as prostatitis, hyperplasia and even prostate cancer. This review assembles current thoughts on the concepts and mechanisms behind the developmental origins of health and disease as they relate to protein malnutrition, and highlights the effects of maternal protein malnutrition on rat prostate development and homeostasis. Such insights on developmental trajectories of adult-onset prostate disease may help provide a foundation for future studies in this field.

Influence of postnatal prolactin modulation on the development and maturation of ventral prostate in young rats

Besides androgenic dependence, other hormones also influence the prostate biology. Prolactin has been described as an important hormone associated with maintenance of prostatic morphophysiology; however, there is a lack of information on the involvement of prolactin during prostate development and growth. This study aimed to evaluate whether perinatal prolactin modulation interferes with rat ventral prostate (VP) development and maturation. Therefore, prolactin or bromocriptine (an inhibitor of prolactin release from the pituitary) were administered to Sprague Dawley rats from postnatal Day (PND) 12 to PND 21 or 35. Animals were then killed and serum hormonal quantification, VP morphological-stereological and immunohistochemical analyses and western blotting reactions were employed. Our results demonstrate that prolactin blockage increased serum testosterone on PND 21, which reflected an increase in anogenital distance. Although prolactin modulation did not interfere with VP weight, it modified VP morphology by dilating the acinar lumen and reducing epithelial cell height. Prolactin activated the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) downstream pathway, increased androgen receptor expression and epithelial proliferation. In addition, prolactin and bromocriptine also increased expression of cytokeratin 18, a marker of luminal-differentiated cells. In conclusion, the VP responds to prolactin modulation through a mechanism of increasing the epithelial proliferative response and dynamics of cell differentiation, especially in animals treated for a more prolonged period.

The prostate response to prolactin modulation in adult castrated rats subjected to testosterone replacement

Despite the androgenic dependence, other hormones, growth factors, and cytokines are necessary to support prostatic growth and maintain the glandular structure; among them, prolactin is a non-steroidal hormone secreted mainly by the pituitary gland. However, extra-pituitary expression of prolactin, such as in the prostate, has also been demonstrated, highlighting the paracrine and autocrine actions of prolactin within the prostate. Here, we investigated whether prolactin modulation alters ventral prostate (VP) morphophysiology in adult castrated rats. Sprague Dawley rats were castrated and after 21 days, divided into ten experimental groups (n = 6/group): castrated control: castrated animals that did not receive treatment; castrated+testosterone: castrated animals that received T (4 mg/kg/day); castrated+PRL (PRL): castrated animals receiving prolactin (0.3 mg/kg/day); castrated+T+PRL: castrated animals that received a combination of testosterone and prolactin; and castrated+bromocriptine (BR): castrated animals that received bromocriptine (0.4 mg/kg/day). The control group included intact animals. The animals were treated for 3 or 10 consecutive days. At the end of experimental period, the animals were euthanized, and the blood and VP lobes were collected and analyzed by different methods. The main findings were that the administration of prolactin to castrated rats did not exert anabolic effects on the VP. Although we observed activation of downstream prolactin signaling after prolactin administration, this was not enough to overcome the prostatic androgen deficiency. Likewise, there was no additional glandular involution in the castrated group treated with bromocriptine. We concluded that despite stimulating the downstream signaling pathway, exogenous prolactin does not act on VP in the absence or presence of high levels of testosterone.