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Robertson MR, Olivier LJ, Roberts J, Yonthantham L, Banda C, N’gombwa IB, Dale R, Tiller LN. Testing the Effectiveness of the "Smelly" Elephant Repellent in Controlled Experiments in Semi-Captive Asian and African Savanna Elephants. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3334. [PMID: 37958089 PMCID: PMC10647569 DOI: 10.3390/ani13213334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Crop-raiding by elephants is one of the most prevalent forms of human-elephant conflict and is increasing with the spread of agriculture into wildlife range areas. As the magnitude of conflicts between people and elephants increases across Africa and Asia, mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. In this study, we tested the responses of semi-captive elephants to the "smelly" elephant repellent, a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method. At two trial sites, in Zambia and Thailand, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were exposed to the repellent, in order to test whether or not they entered an area protected by the repellent and whether they ate the food provided. The repellent elicited clear reactions from both study groups of elephants compared to control conditions. Generalised linear models revealed that the elephants were more alert, sniffed more, and vocalised more when they encountered the repellent. Although the repellent triggered a response, it did not prevent elephants from entering plots protected by the repellent or from eating crops, unlike in trials conducted with wild elephants. Personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the elephants that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. We conclude that, although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human-elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. This study also shows that understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human-elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms. Appreciating personality traits in elephants, especially amongst "problem" elephants who have a greater propensity to crop raid, could lead to the design of new mitigation methods designed to target these individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa J. Olivier
- Game Rangers International, Plot 2374, The Village, Leopards Hill Road, Lusaka 10101, Zambia; (L.J.O.); (C.B.)
| | - John Roberts
- Golden Triangle Asian Elephant Foundation, 229 Moo 1, Chiang Saen, Chiang Rai 57150, Thailand; (J.R.); (L.Y.)
| | - Laddawan Yonthantham
- Golden Triangle Asian Elephant Foundation, 229 Moo 1, Chiang Saen, Chiang Rai 57150, Thailand; (J.R.); (L.Y.)
| | - Constance Banda
- Game Rangers International, Plot 2374, The Village, Leopards Hill Road, Lusaka 10101, Zambia; (L.J.O.); (C.B.)
| | - Innocent B. N’gombwa
- Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Ministry of Tourism, Chilanga 10101, Zambia;
| | - Rachel Dale
- Department for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University for Continuing Education Krems, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria;
| | - Lydia N. Tiller
- Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Langata, Nairobi 15135, Kenya;
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NZ, UK
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Smit JB, Searle CE, Buchanan‐Smith HM, Strampelli P, Mkuburo L, Kakengi VA, Kohi EM, Dickman AJ, Lee PC. Anthropogenic risk increases night‐time activities and associations in African elephants (
Loxodonta africana
) in the
Ruaha‐Rungwa
ecosystem, Tanzania. Afr J Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.13083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josephine B. Smit
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences University of Stirling Stirling UK
- Southern Tanzania Elephant Program Iringa Tanzania
| | - Charlotte E. Searle
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology The Recanati‐Kaplan Centre Tubney UK
- Lion Landscapes Iringa Tanzania
| | | | - Paolo Strampelli
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology The Recanati‐Kaplan Centre Tubney UK
- Lion Landscapes Iringa Tanzania
| | - Lameck Mkuburo
- Southern Tanzania Elephant Program Iringa Tanzania
- Tanzanian Elephant Foundation Moshi Tanzania
| | | | | | - Amy J. Dickman
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology The Recanati‐Kaplan Centre Tubney UK
- Lion Landscapes Iringa Tanzania
| | - Phyllis C. Lee
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences University of Stirling Stirling UK
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3
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Cabral de Mel SJ, Seneweera S, de Mel RK, Dangolla A, Weerakoon DK, Maraseni T, Allen BL. Current and Future Approaches to Mitigate Conflict between Humans and Asian Elephants: The Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12212965. [PMID: 36359089 PMCID: PMC9653792 DOI: 10.3390/ani12212965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Conflict between humans and Asian elephants is a major conservation issue. Here we discuss common tools used to manage human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Asia and the potential of animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars or Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) for managing problem elephants. Most current HEC mitigation tools lack the ability to be modified to accommodate needs of elephants and therefore are sometimes unsuccessful. AGDs currently used to manage livestock movement can be adapted to mitigate HEC to overcome this problem. AGDs can constantly monitor animal movements and be programmed to deliver sound warnings followed by electric shock whenever animals attempt to move across virtual boundaries demarcated by managers. Elephants fitted with AGDs are expected to learn to avoid the electric shock by associating it with the warning sound and move away from specified areas. Based on the potential shown by studies conducted using AGDs on other wild species, we suggest that experiments should be conducted with captive elephants to determine the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs on elephants. Further, assessing public opinion on using AGDs on elephants will also be important. If elephants can learn to avoid virtual boundaries set by AGDs, it could help to significantly reduce HEC incidents. Abstract Asian elephants are a principal cause of human-wildlife conflict. This results in the death/injury of elephants and humans and large-scale crop and property damage. Most current human-elephant conflict (HEC) mitigation tools lack the flexibility to accommodate the ecological needs of elephants and are ineffective at reducing HEC in the long-term. Here we review common HEC mitigation tools used in Asia and the potential of Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) to manage problem elephants. AGDs can be configured to monitor animal movements in real-time and deliver auditory warnings followed by electric stimuli whenever animals attempt to move across user-specified virtual boundaries. Thus, AGDs are expected to condition elephants to avoid receiving shocks and keep them away from virtually fenced areas, while providing alternative routes that can be modified if required. Studies conducted using AGDs with other species provide an overview of their potential in conditioning wild animals. We recommend that the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs be evaluated using captive elephants along with public perception of using AGDs on elephants as a means of addressing the inherent deficiencies of common HEC mitigation tools. If elephants could be successfully conditioned to avoid virtual fences, then AGDs could resolve many HEC incidents throughout Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendranie Judith Cabral de Mel
- Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
- National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy 20000, Sri Lanka
- Correspondence:
| | - Saman Seneweera
- National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy 20000, Sri Lanka
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Ruvinda Kasun de Mel
- Centre for Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Zoology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
| | - Ashoka Dangolla
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - Devaka Keerthi Weerakoon
- Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, University of Colombo, Colombo 00300, Sri Lanka
| | - Tek Maraseni
- Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
- Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Benjamin Lee Allen
- Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
- Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth 6034, South Africa
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4
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de la Torre JA, Cheah C, Lechner AM, Wong EP, Tuuga A, Saaban S, Goossens B, Campos‐Arceiz A. Sundaic elephants prefer habitats on the periphery of protected areas. J Appl Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Antonio de la Torre
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute Chinese Academy of Sciences & Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences Mengla China
- Programa Jaguares de la Selva Maya Bioconciencia A.C. Ciudad de Mexico Mexico
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih Malaysia
| | - Cheryl Cheah
- WWF‐Malaysia Centre Point Complex Kota Kinabalu Malaysia
| | - Alex M. Lechner
- Urban Transformations Hub Monash University Indonesia The Breeze BSD City Indonesia
| | - Ee Phin Wong
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih Malaysia
- Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih Malaysia
| | | | - Salman Saaban
- Department of Wildlife and National Parks Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Benoit Goossens
- Sabah Wildlife Department Wisma MUIS Kota Kinabalu Malaysia
- Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences Cardiff University Cardiff UK
- Danau Girang Field Centre c/o Sabah Wildlife Department Kota Kinabalu Malaysia
| | - Ahimsa Campos‐Arceiz
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute Chinese Academy of Sciences & Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences Mengla China
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih Malaysia
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Social Behavior and Group Formation in Male Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): The Effects of Age and Musth in Wild and Zoo-Housed Animals. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12091215. [PMID: 35565641 PMCID: PMC9100748 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The conservation of wild and zoo-housed Asian elephants partly depends on developing our understanding of male elephant social behavior. Once thought to be solitary, we now know that male elephants can display rich social exchanges with both males and females. However, these interactions are expected to change with age and around the sexually active state of “musth.” We used behavioral data from wild and zoo-housed elephant populations to investigate how age, musth, and environmental factors influence how male elephants socialize and associate with group members. In Sri Lanka, only male elephants of older age (>20 years) exhibited signs of musth, but even some of the youngest zoo-housed elephants underwent musth (as young as 11 years). Additionally, we found that age and musth status predicted whether a wild male elephant associated with females, other males or was alone, as well as the number of conspecifics (males and females) in the same group with which a male was observed. Finally, rates of aggression, prosocial behavior (affiliative behaviors that promote positive social bonds between elephants), and submissive behavior exhibited by wild and zoo-housed male elephants were associated with age, musth status, the number of elephants presented, and group type (all-male or mixed sex). These results provide motivation for future studies of social behavior in male Asian elephants, as they will contribute to the reproduction and conservation of this endangered species. Abstract Asian elephants are endangered, and the long-term viability of the species depends on integrative approaches to address the sustainability of in-situ and ex-situ populations. Growing evidence shows that male elephants exhibit extensive and flexible social behavior that rivals the complexity of that of females. Male elephant sociality is expected to change dramatically around the unique sexual state of musth. However, data related to male Asian elephant sociality is lacking. Here, we conducted complementary observations in Wasgamuwa National Park, Sri Lanka, and North American zoos of male Asian elephant social behavior. Age and musth status, along with other factors, were associated with variation in social behavior and group formation of males. In wild male elephants, both musth status and age impacted elephant associations within all-male and mixed-sex groups: non-musth elephants were generally sighted less often in mixed-sex groups as they aged, while the inverse occurred with musth elephants. Musth status interacted with age to predict the number of conspecifics with which a wild male elephant associated: younger males were observed with more females during non-musth (but the opposite was true during musth), and male elephants between 20 and 30 years were observed with the highest number of male conspecifics except during musth. Finally, we found variation in aggression, prosocial behavior, and submissive behavior was influenced by intrinsic (age and musth status) and extrinsic factors (group size and type) in similar ways in both populations; prosocial behavior was most common and was influenced by the number of conspecifics present (both populations), and age, group type, and musth status (zoo population), while aggression was rare, especially among older elephants. We suggest that longitudinal studies of this threatened species will be particularly helpful to promote the reproduction and conservation of Asian elephants in in-situ and ex-situ environments.
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6
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O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Sandri MN, Berezin JL, Munevar JM, Kinzley C, Wood JD, Wiśniewska M, Kilian JW. Male African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Behavioral Responses to Estrous Call Playbacks May Inform Conservation Management Tools. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12091162. [PMID: 35565588 PMCID: PMC9102362 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary During annual periods of heightened sexual activity (musth), male African elephants expend a significant amount of energy communicating their reproductive status, as well as searching and competing for potential mates. To locate females, musth males may risk venturing outside protected areas and into landscapes shared with humans where conflict between wildlife and people can occur. Adverse interactions between elephants and people can be detrimental to human livelihoods, resulting in negative attitudes towards elephants and, in some cases, retaliatory killings. Interactions with aggressive musth males can also be life-threatening to community members who attempt to confront them. Mitigation strategies that effectively target the reproductive motivations of musth males may offer solutions as the human–elephant interface continues to expand. In this study, we build on earlier research showing that playbacks of female elephant reproductive calls, (i.e., estrous rumbles) can change the movement trajectory and behavior of male elephants in Etosha National Park, Namibia. Individuals belonging to three male groups were opportunistically subjected to playback experiments and evaluated based on their reaction intensity. Our results demonstrate that mature musth adults are more likely to change directions and approach the source of a female’s estrous call than mature, sexually-inactive adult elephants. We also show that post-dispersal young males that were not in musth also respond strongly to the stimulus. These findings support further exploration of mitigation solutions that incorporate elephant behavior, reproductive status, and context-specific vocalizations. Abstract Driven by reproductive motives, male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in musth often expand their home ranges to locate estrous females. This extended range, coupled with heightened aggression often observed in musth males, can be particularly problematic in regions where human-modified landscapes and elephant territories increasingly overlap. Several mitigation tools have been tested to resolve a wide range of human–elephant conflicts with varying degrees of success due to geographical disparities and habituation. We present findings on the potential application of estrous call playbacks in manipulating the behavior and movement of male elephants non-invasively, particularly mature musth adults and younger post-dispersal males, in Etosha National Park. Estrous vocalizations were presented across 26 experimental trials to mature musth adults (n = 5), mature non-musth adults (n = 6), and non-musth males belonging to younger, post-dispersal age classes (n = 8), with behavioral responses scored on a gradient scale from 0–1. Both mature musth adults and younger non-musth elephants were significantly more likely to respond with the highest intensity by approaching the acoustic source compared to mature non-musth adults that avoided the call. However, younger males tested in the presence of an older, higher-ranking male tended to react with a lower intensity than those tested alone. This result likely demonstrates the influence of social hierarchy and associations on male elephant behavior. We also observed a significant increase in physiological response, measured by defecation rate, across all male groups in response to the estrous call playbacks. Our findings suggest that using estrous calls as acoustic deterrents may effectively and non-invasively aid in reducing tension at the human–elephant interface, depending on the age, social context, and reproductive status of the male elephant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E. O’Connell-Rodwell
- Center for Conservation Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Utopia Scientific, P.O. Box 221100, San Diego, CA 92192, USA; (M.N.S.); (J.L.B.)
- Harvard University Center for the Environment, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Monica N. Sandri
- Utopia Scientific, P.O. Box 221100, San Diego, CA 92192, USA; (M.N.S.); (J.L.B.)
- Geography Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jodie L. Berezin
- Utopia Scientific, P.O. Box 221100, San Diego, CA 92192, USA; (M.N.S.); (J.L.B.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA
| | - Jaquelyn M. Munevar
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Colleen Kinzley
- Conservation Society of California, Oakland Zoo, Oakland, CA 94605, USA;
| | | | - Maggie Wiśniewska
- The Federated Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 08901, USA;
| | - J. Werner Kilian
- Etosha Ecological Institute, Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Tourism, Okaukuejo via Outjo P.O. Box 6, Namibia;
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7
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Behavioral characterization of musth in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): defining progressive stages of male sexual behavior in in-situ and ex-situ populations. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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8
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Anand S, Radhakrishna S. Collective Movement Decision-making in Primates in Crop-raiding Contexts. Behav Processes 2022; 196:104604. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Aznar-Cormano L, Bonnald J, Krief S, Guma N, Debruyne R. Molecular sexing of degraded DNA from elephants and mammoths: a genotyping assay relevant both to conservation biology and to paleogenetics. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7227. [PMID: 33790303 PMCID: PMC8012363 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86010-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It is important to determine the sex of elephants from their samples-faeces from the field or seized ivory-for forensic reasons or to understand population demography and genetic structure. Molecular sexing methods developed in the last two decades have often shown limited efficiency, particularly in terms of sensitivity and specificity, due to the degradation of DNA in these samples. These limitations have also prevented their use with ancient DNA samples of elephants or mammoths. Here we propose a novel TaqMan-MGB qPCR assay to address these difficulties. We designed it specifically to allow the characterization of the genetic sex for highly degraded samples of all elephantine taxa (elephants and mammoths). In vitro experiments demonstrated a high level of sensitivity and low contamination risks. We applied this assay in two actual case studies where it consistently recovered the right genotype for specimens of known sex a priori. In the context of a modern conservation survey of African elephants, it allowed determining the sex for over 99% of fecal samples. In a paleogenetic analysis of woolly mammoths, it produced a robust hypothesis of the sex for over 65% of the specimens out of three PCR replicates. This simple, rapid, and cost-effective procedure makes it readily applicable to large sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Aznar-Cormano
- CNRS, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie Paris (CR2P), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Université, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 38, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Julie Bonnald
- CNRS, Eco-Anthropologie (EA), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Université Paris Diderot, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75016, Paris, France
- Sebitoli Chimpanzee Project, Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park, Fort Portal, Uganda
| | - Sabrina Krief
- CNRS, Eco-Anthropologie (EA), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Université Paris Diderot, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75016, Paris, France
- Sebitoli Chimpanzee Project, Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park, Fort Portal, Uganda
| | | | - Régis Debruyne
- Direction Générale Déléguée à la Recherche, à l'Expertise, la Valorisation et l'Enseignement (DGD-REVE), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 17, 75005, Paris, France.
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Abstract
AbstractWe studied garbage consumption by Asian elephants at the Uddakandara garbage dump in southern Sri Lanka. Garbage at the dump was classified under six categories and quantified using a grid overlay. Elephants visiting the dump were individually identified by morphological criteria and items and quantities consumed by them were determined by focal animal sampling. Dung of elephants that did not consume garbage and those from the dump were compared quantitatively and dung constituents assessed by washing through three layered sieves. A total of 17 individual elephants visited the garbage dump during the study period, all of who were males. The observed sexual bias could be related to behavioural differences between the sexes. Elephants mostly consumed ‘fruits and vegetables’ and ‘prepared food’, possibly due to their higher palatability and nutritional value. Ingestion of polythene was incidental and associated with consuming prepared food. Proportions of the six categories in elephant diet and garbage piles were significantly different, indicating that elephants were highly selective when feeding. Elephant arrivals increased in response to unloading of garbage, suggesting attraction to fresh garbage. Dung analysis found that garbage consumption did not change the quantity and constituents of dung, except for the presence of anthropogenic items. As consumed anthropogenic items were regularly excreted, retention and obstruction of the alimentary tract are unlikely in elephants. Elephants feeding on garbage had better body condition than non-garbage consuming elephants, indicating that garbage provided better nutrition than natural food and was not detrimental to their health.
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11
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de la Torre JA, Wong EP, Lechner AM, Zulaikha N, Zawawi A, Abdul‐Patah P, Saaban S, Goossens B, Campos‐Arceiz A. There will be conflict – agricultural landscapes are prime, rather than marginal, habitats for Asian elephants. Anim Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. A. de la Torre
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Programa Jaguares de la Selva Maya Bioconciencia A.C Ciudad de México Mexico
| | - E. P. Wong
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
| | - A. M. Lechner
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Lincoln Centre for Water and Planetary Health School of Geography University of Lincoln Brayford Pool Lincoln Lincolnshire LN6 7TS UK
| | - N. Zulaikha
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
| | - A. Zawawi
- Department of Wildlife and National Parks Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - P. Abdul‐Patah
- Department of Wildlife and National Parks Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - S. Saaban
- Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Department of Wildlife and National Parks Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - B. Goossens
- Organisms and Environment Division Cardiff School of Biosciences Cardiff University Cardiff UK
- Danau Girang Field Centre Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia
- Sabah Wildlife Department Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia
- Sustainable Places Research Institute Cardiff University Cardiff UK
| | - A. Campos‐Arceiz
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences University of Nottingham Malaysia Semenyih, Selangor Malaysia
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute Chinese Academy of Sciences Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar
- Center for Integrative Conservation Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences XTBG Menglun Yunnan China
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12
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LaDue CA, Vandercone RPG, Kiso WK, Freeman EW. Scars of human–elephant conflict: patterns inferred from field observations of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/wr20175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
ContextHuman–elephant conflict (HEC) is a major threat to Asian elephants as humans and elephants are forced to share common resources. In Sri Lanka, human-dominated landscapes adjacent to protected areas promote high rates of HEC, especially in the form of crop-foraging by elephants. Crop-foraging can be dangerous to both elephants and humans involved in the conflict. Gunfire is a common way for human communities to deter crop-foraging elephants, and gunshot wounds are commonly described in this elephant population on necropsy.
AimsWe sought to quantify and describe unique scar patterns among Asian elephants in a protected area, Wasgamuwa National Park, attributed to HEC.
MethodsWe identified 38 adult female and 64 adult male elephants and recorded the age class and body condition of each with established standards. Using photographs, we counted the number, position, and relative size of all scars on each animal.
Key resultsMale elephants had significantly more scars than did females, and for males, the number of scars increased progressively with age. Additionally, male elephants with higher body conditions had more scars. Finally, males tended to have more scars towards the head, especially at older ages.
ConclusionsDifferences in total scar counts between the sexes in this population imply that male elephants in this area more frequently engage in HEC than do females, following observations previously described in the literature. Furthermore, the fact that male elephants acquired progressively more scars as they aged, and that fatter elephants had more scars, indicates that previous exposure to HEC may not have been a deterrent for future events among these males, and potentially, crops served as valuable food sources for these animals. Finally, the changing body locations of these scars with age in males possibly shows plastic behavioural responses during crop-foraging or lower tolerance by farmers towards habitual crop foragers.
ImplicationsThese results emphasise the need for animal-based approaches to HEC mitigation. Similarly, conservation managers in Sri Lanka and other elephant range countries should investigate similar methods that estimate patterns of HEC to develop effective management strategies directly targeting animals most likely to engage in conflict.
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13
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Gross EM, Lahkar BP, Subedi N, Nyirenda VR, Klebelsberg E, Jakoby O. Elephants in the village: Causes and consequences of property damage in Asia and Africa. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eva M. Gross
- Faculty of Biological Sciences Goethe University Frankfurt Frankfurt Germany
- Awely, Wildlife and People Orléans France
| | - Bibhuti P. Lahkar
- Awely, Wildlife and People Orléans France
- Aaranyak Guwahati Assam India
| | - Naresh Subedi
- National Trust for Nature Conservation Lalitpur Nepal
| | - Vincent R. Nyirenda
- Department of Zoology and Aquatic Sciences School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University Kitwe Zambia
- Department of National Parks and Wildlife Ministry of Tourism and Arts Chilanga Zambia
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Valenta K, Schmitt MH, Ayasse M, Nevo O. Retracted: The sensory ecology of fear: African elephants show aversion to olfactory predator signals. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kim Valenta
- University of Florida, Department of Anthropology Gainesville Florida USA
| | - Melissa H. Schmitt
- University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Ecology Evolution and Marine Biology Santa Barbara California USA
- South African Environmental Observation Network Phalaborwa South Africa
| | - Manfred Ayasse
- Ulm University, Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics Ulm Germany
| | - Omer Nevo
- Ulm University, Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics Ulm Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Biodiversity Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
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15
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Troup G, Doran B, Au J, King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Heinsohn R. Movement tortuosity and speed reveal the trade-offs of crop raiding for African elephants. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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16
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Naha D, Dash SK, Chettri A, Roy A, Sathyakumar S. Elephants in the neighborhood: patterns of crop-raiding by Asian elephants within a fragmented landscape of Eastern India. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9399. [PMID: 32676222 PMCID: PMC7335499 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of forest cover, rise in human populations and fragmentation of habitats leads to decline in biodiversity and extinction of large mammals globally. Elephants, being the largest of terrestrial mammals, symbolize global conservation programs and co-occur with humans within multiple-use landscapes of Asia and Africa. Within such shared landscapes, poaching, habitat loss and extent of human-elephant conflicts (HEC) affect survival and conservation of elephants. HEC are severe in South Asia with increasing attacks on humans, crop depredation and property damage. Such incidents reduce societal tolerance towards elephants and increase the risk of retaliation by local communities. We analyzed a 2-year dataset on crop depredation by Asian elephants (N = 380) events in North Bengal (eastern India). We also explored the effect of landscape, anthropogenic factors (area of forest, agriculture, distance to protected area, area of human settlements, riverine patches and human density) on the spatial occurrence of such incidents.Crop depredation showed a distinct nocturnal pattern (22.00-06:00) and majority of the incidents were recorded in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Results of our spatial analysis suggest that crop depredation increased with an increase in the area of forest patches, agriculture, presence of riverine patches and human density. Probability of crop depredation further increased with decreasing distance from protected areas. Villages within 1.5 km of a forest patch were most affected. Crop raiding incidents suggest a deviation from the "high-risk high-gain male biased" foraging behavior and involved proportionately more mixed groups (57%) than lone bulls (43%). Demographic data suggest that mixed groups comprised an average of 23 individuals with adult and sub adult females, bulls and calves. Crop depredation and fatal elephant attacks on humans were spatially clustered with eastern, central and western parts of North Bengal identified as hotspots of HEC. Our results will help to prioritize mitigation measures such as prohibition of alcohol production within villages, improving condition of riverine patches, changing crop composition, fencing agriculture fields, implement early warning systems around protected areas and training local people on how to prevent conflicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Naha
- Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Suraj Kumar Dash
- Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Abhisek Chettri
- Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Akashdeep Roy
- Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Sambandam Sathyakumar
- Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
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Penny SG, White RL, Scott DM, MacTavish L, Pernetta AP. Using drones and sirens to elicit avoidance behaviour in white rhinoceros as an anti-poaching tactic. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191135. [PMID: 31311472 PMCID: PMC6661359 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Poaching fuelled by international trade in horn caused the deaths of over 1000 African rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum and Diceros bicornis) per year between 2013 and 2017. Deterrents, which act to establish avoidance behaviours in animals, have the potential to aid anti-poaching efforts by moving at-risk rhinos away from areas of danger (e.g. near perimeter fences). To evaluate the efficacy of deterrents, we exposed a population of southern white rhinos (C. simum simum) to acoustic- (honeybee, siren, turtle dove), olfactory- (chilli, sunflower), and drone-based stimuli on a game reserve in South Africa. We exposed rhinos to each stimulus up to four times. Stimuli were considered effective deterrents if they repeatedly elicited avoidance behaviour (locomotion away from the deterrent). Rhinos travelled significantly further in response to the siren than to the honeybee or turtle dove stimulus, and to low-altitude drone flights than to higher altitude flights. We found the drone to be superior at manipulating rhino movement than the siren owing to its longer transmission range and capability of pursuit. By contrast, the scent stimuli were ineffective at inciting avoidance behaviour. Our findings indicate that deterrents are a prospective low-cost and in situ method to manage rhino movement in game reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Penny
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Rachel L White
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Dawn M Scott
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Lynne MacTavish
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Angelo P Pernetta
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
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18
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Srinivasaiah N, Kumar V, Vaidyanathan S, Sukumar R, Sinha A. All-Male Groups in Asian Elephants: A Novel, Adaptive Social Strategy in Increasingly Anthropogenic Landscapes of Southern India. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8678. [PMID: 31273235 PMCID: PMC6609637 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45130-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Male Asian elephants are known to adopt a high-risk high-gain foraging strategy by venturing into agricultural areas and feeding on nutritious crops in order to improve their reproductive fitness. We hypothesised that the high risks to survival posed by increasingly urbanising and often unpredictable production landscapes may necessitate the emergence of behavioural strategies that allow male elephants to persist in such landscapes. Using 1445 photographic records of 248 uniquely identified male Asian elephants over a 23-month period, we show that male Asian elephants display striking emergent behaviour, particularly the formation of stable, long-term all-male groups, typically in non-forested or human-modified and highly fragmented areas. They remained solitary or associated in mixed-sex groups, however, within forested habitats. These novel, large all-male associations, may constitute a unique life history strategy for male elephants in the high-risk but resource-rich production landscapes of southern India. This may be especially true for the adolescent males, which seemed to effectively improve their body condition by increasingly exploiting anthropogenic resources when in all-male groups. This observation further supports our hypothesis that such emergent behaviours are likely to constitute an adaptive strategy for male Asian elephants that may be forced to increasingly confront anthropogenically intrusive environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishant Srinivasaiah
- National Institute of Advanced Studies, Animal Behaviour and Cognition Programme, Bengaluru, 560012, India.
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning, Pondicherry, 605101, India
| | - Srinivas Vaidyanathan
- Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning, Pondicherry, 605101, India
| | - Raman Sukumar
- Indian Institute of Science, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Bengaluru, 560012, India
| | - Anindya Sinha
- National Institute of Advanced Studies, Animal Behaviour and Cognition Programme, Bengaluru, 560012, India.,Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, 741246, India
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Johnson MB, Parker LD, Vanthomme H, Tchignoumba L, Deichmann JL, Maldonado JE, Korte L, Alonso A. Patterns of genetic diversity in African forest elephants living in a human‐modified landscape in southwest Gabon. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mireille B. Johnson
- Gabon Biodiversity Program Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Gamba Gabon
| | - Lillian D. Parker
- Center for Conservation Genomics Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington District of Columbia
- Department of Biosciences, School of Systems Biology George Mason University Fairfax Virginia
| | - Hadrien Vanthomme
- Center for Conservation and Sustainability Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington District of Columbia
| | - Landry Tchignoumba
- Gabon Biodiversity Program Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Gamba Gabon
| | - Jessica L. Deichmann
- Center for Conservation and Sustainability Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington District of Columbia
| | - Jesús E. Maldonado
- Center for Conservation Genomics Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington District of Columbia
| | - Lisa Korte
- Gabon Biodiversity Program Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Gamba Gabon
| | - Alfonso Alonso
- Center for Conservation and Sustainability Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington District of Columbia
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20
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First country-wide survey of the Endangered Asian elephant: towards better conservation and management in Sri Lanka. ORYX 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/s0030605318001254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe Endangered Asian elephant Elephas maximus comes into widespread conflict with agrarian communities, necessitating active management. The species’ distribution is of primary importance for management planning. However, data-based countrywide distribution maps have not been available for any of the 13 Asian elephant range states. We conducted a 5 × 5 km grid-based questionnaire survey in Sri Lanka to produce an island-wide elephant distribution map. Elephants occur over 59.9% of Sri Lanka and people are resident in 69.4% of elephant range, indicating the challenge of separating people and elephants at a landscape scale. Elephants in Sri Lanka have lost 16.1% of their range since 1960 but their current distribution remains largely contiguous. We found the range of adult males was 15.1% greater, and less seasonal, than that of herds, possibly because males have a higher tolerance for conflict with people. The distribution of conflict coincided with the co-occurrence of humans and elephants. We conclude that a human–elephant coexistence model is the only viable option for effectively mitigating human–elephant conflict and conserving elephants in Sri Lanka. The findings are currently being used to effect a paradigm change in elephant conservation and management in the country.
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Abstract
Crop foraging or crop raiding concerns wildlife foraging and farmers’ reactions and responses to it. To understand crop foraging and its value to wildlife or its implications for humans requires a cross-disciplinary approach that considers the behavior and ecology of wild animals engaging in this behavior; the types and levels of competition for resources between people and wildlife; people's perceptions of and attitudes toward wildlife, including animals that forage on crops; and discourse about animals and their behaviors and how these discourses can be used for expressing dissent and distress about other social conflicts. So, to understand and respond to conflicts about crop damage, we need to look beyond what people lose, i.e., crop loss and economic equivalence, and focus more on what people say about wildlife and why they say it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M. Hill
- Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
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22
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Pokharel SS, Singh B, Seshagiri PB, Sukumar R. Lower levels of glucocorticoids in crop‐raiders: diet quality as a potential ‘pacifier’ against stress in free‐ranging Asian elephants in a human‐production habitat. Anim Conserv 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. S. Pokharel
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - B. Singh
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - P. B. Seshagiri
- Department of Molecular Reproduction and Developmental Genetics Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - R. Sukumar
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
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23
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Norkaew T, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Somgird C, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Punturee K, Vongchan P, Somboon N, Khonmee J. Body condition and adrenal glucocorticoid activity affects metabolic marker and lipid profiles in captive female elephants in Thailand. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204965. [PMID: 30278087 PMCID: PMC6168167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and physiological function, and identified mitigating management strategies to optimize health and welfare. A similar methodological approach was used in this study, which evaluated a body condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest) every other month and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] related to measures of body condition and adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS was 3-3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5-5 (very overweight); no elephants had a BCS <2. BCSs were higher in rainy and winter seasons compared to summer, with FGM, TG, HDL, LDL, and insulin also higher in the rainy and/or winter seasons (p<0.05). By contrast, TC and glucose were lowest in the rainy season. FGM measures were negatively associated with two environmental factors: temperature and rainfall, but not humidity. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TC, LDL, and HDL, and between FGM and TC, HDL, glucose, and insulin (p<0.05), whereas BCS and FGM were both negatively associated with the G:I (p<0.05). However, there was no relationship between BCS and FGM among the camp elephants. Using BCS and FGM measures as outcome variables in separate regression models, this study found high BCS and elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid profiles and metabolic status in elephants. Furthermore, more work hours/day was associated with better body condition and health measures. Thus, being overweight and exposed to factors that increase adrenal activity could adversely affect health status, requiring alterations in management for some individuals, whereas exercise appears to have a protective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Treepradab Norkaew
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Veterinary Public Health Centre for Asia Pacific, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Khanittha Punturee
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Preeyanat Vongchan
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nopphamas Somboon
- Small Animal Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Vijayakrishnan S, Kumar MA, Umapathy G, Kumar V, Sinha A. Physiological stress responses in wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus in a human-dominated landscape in the Western Ghats, southern India. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2018; 266:150-156. [PMID: 29777687 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Increasing anthropogenic pressures on forests, especially in the tropical regions of the world, have restricted several large mammalian species such as the Asian elephant to fragmented habitats within human-dominated landscapes. In this study, we assessed the effects of an anthropogenic landscape and its associated conflict with humans on the physiological stress responses displayed by Asian elephants in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats mountains in south India. We have quantified faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations in focal individual elephants within and across herds, inhabiting both anthropogenic and natural habitats, and evaluated their physiological responses to different socio-ecological situations between November 2013 and April 2014. Physiological stress responses varied significantly among the tested elephant age- and sex categories but not across different types of social organisation. Adults generally showed higher FGM concentrations, even in the absence of stressors, than did any other age category. Males also appeared to have higher stress responses than did females. Although there was no significant variation in mean stress levels between elephants on the plateau in the absence of human interactions and those in adjacent, relatively undisturbed forest habitats, FGM concentrations increased significantly for adult and subadult individuals as well as for calves following drives, during which elephants were driven off aggressively by people. Our study emphasises the general importance of understanding individual variation in physiology and behaviour within a population of a seriously threatened mammalian species, the Asian elephant, and specifically highlights the need for long-term monitoring of the stress physiology and behavioural responses of individual elephants across both human-dominated and natural landscapes. Such studies would not only provide comprehensive insights into the adaptive biology of elephants in changing ecological regimes but also aid in the development of effective management and conservation strategies for endangered populations of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreedhar Vijayakrishnan
- Postgraduate Programme in Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program and National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, India; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India; National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India.
| | | | - G Umapathy
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Anindya Sinha
- Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India; National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata, India
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25
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Mumby HS, Plotnik JM. Taking the Elephants' Perspective: Remembering Elephant Behavior, Cognition and Ecology in Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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26
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Using camera traps to study the age–sex structure and behaviour of crop-using elephants Loxodonta africana in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania. ORYX 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/s0030605317000345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractCrop losses to foraging elephants are one of the primary obstacles to the coexistence of elephants and people. Understanding whether some individuals in a population are more likely to forage on crops, and the temporal patterns of elephant visits to farms, is key to mitigating the negative impacts of elephants on farmers’ livelihoods. We used camera traps to study the crop foraging behaviour of African elephants Loxodonta africana in farmland adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains National Park in southern Tanzania during October 2010–August 2014. Camera traps placed on elephant trails into farmland detected elephants on 336 occasions during the study period. We identified individual elephants for 126 camera-trap detections. All were independent males, and we identified 48 unique bulls aged 10–29 years. Two-thirds of the bulls identified were detected only once by camera traps during the study period. Our findings are consistent with previous studies that found that adult males are more likely to adopt high-risk feeding behaviours such as crop foraging, although young males dispersing from maternal family units also consume crops in Udzungwa. We found a large number of occasional crop-users (32 of the 48 bulls identified) and a smaller number of repeat crop-users (16 of 48), suggesting that lethal control of crop-using elephants is unlikely to be an effective long-term strategy for reducing crop losses to elephants.
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27
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Pokharel SS, Seshagiri PB, Sukumar R. Assessment of season-dependent body condition scores in relation to faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in free-ranging Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 5:cox039. [PMID: 28721215 PMCID: PMC5508666 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cox039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We studied seasonal and annual changes in visual body condition scores (BCSs), and assessed how these scores were related to levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) in free-ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the seasonally dry tropical forests of the Mysore and Nilgiri Elephant Reserves in southern India. We assessed the animals' BCS visually on a scale of 1 to 5; where 1 represents a very thin and 5 represents a very fat elephant. To understand the influence of seasonality on BCS, we sampled the population during dry (n = 398) and wet seasons (n = 255) of 2013 and 2015 while, for annual changes in BCS, we sampled nine free-ranging adult females from different family groups that had been repeatedly sighted over seven years. To evaluate the influence of body condition on fGCM, 307 faecal samples were collected from 261 different elephants and were analysed. As a parameter of adrenocortical activity, and thus stress, fGCM was measured (μg/g) in the ethanol-extracted samples using a group-specific 11-oxoaetiocholanolone EIA (antibody raised against 11-oxoaetiocholanolone-17-CMO:BSA and biotinylated-11-oxoaetiocholanolone as a label). Effect of age and season on BCS in relation to fGCM was also studied. A seasonal shift in BCS was observed as expected, i.e. individuals with low BCS were more frequent during the dry season when compared with the wet season. Concentrations of fGCM were highest in individuals with lowest BCS (BCS 1) and then significantly declined till BCS 3. fGCM levels were almost comparable for BCS 3, 4 and 5. This pattern was more conspicuous in female than in male elephants. Season-dependent BCS, hence, reflect the stress status as measured by fGCM, especially in female Asian elephants. This could be used as an important non-invasive approach to monitor the physiological health of free-ranging elephant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Polani B. Seshagiri
- Department of Molecular Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Raman Sukumar
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
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Differences in behaviour of the nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) during foraging in forest versus in agricultural land. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467416000420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:The nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is a widespread species in India that forages in forest as well as on agricultural lands. In Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve, India, it typically takes to crop-raiding at night, while it rests and forages in forest during the daytime. We studied changes in herding and vigilance behaviour during foraging in forest versus in agricultural lands and monsoon versus post-monsoon in the years 2012–2015. We recorded number of individuals (herd size), sex-age composition and number of individuals per unit area of herd's spread (compactness) for every herd under observation using instantaneous scan sampling in forest (176 herds) and farms (321 herds), while spatial trends in herd size on agricultural lands were studied using transect sampling at night. Vigilance behaviour was studied using focal-animal sampling in forest (n = 91) and farms (n = 52) by choosing a single individual per herd under 15 min of observation. Herd sizes were significantly larger in forest (monsoon, median = 3, interquartile range (IQR) = 2–6, post-monsoon, median = 5, IQR = 3–8) than on farms adjacent to forest (monsoon = 3, IQR = 1–5, post-monsoon = 4, IQR = 2–5) and further decreased non-linearly with distance from the forest edge. Herds were more compact, i.e. with smaller inter-individual distance in forests than on farms. Crop-raiding was found to be female-biased, and adult males as well as newborn calves were observed on agricultural lands significantly less frequently. The median vigilance frequency was significantly higher on farms (1.4 min−1) as compared with forests (0.205 min−1) but the median unit scan duration was significantly less in farms (6 s) compared with forest (60 s). The observed differences are likely to be due to difference in the nature of risk faced in the two habitats. In forest, detection of ambush predators such as tigers that occur at a low density, requires careful watch and larger herds increase the chances of detection. In contrast, detection of guarding farmers on agricultural lands who are present at a higher density and make their presence conspicuous to drive away crop raiders would need a glance of smaller time duration. As crop-raiding occurs at night, moonlight is likely to affect the frequency of crop-raiding but we did not find evidence for any deterrent effect of moonlight on the frequency of crop-raiding. The data suggest that the nilgai exhibits substantial behavioural plasticity in response to different nature and levels of risks faced in the two habitats.
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Wijayagunawardane MPB, Short RV, Samarakone TS, Nishany KBM, Harrington H, Perera BVP, Rassool R, Bittner EP. The use of audio playback to deter crop-raiding Asian elephants. WILDLIFE SOC B 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Missaka P. B. Wijayagunawardane
- Department of Animal Science; University of Peradeniya; Peradeniya 20400 Sri Lanka
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Roger V. Short
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | | | | | - Helena Harrington
- Department of Zoology; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - B. V. P. Perera
- Elephant Transit Home; Department of Wildlife Conservation; Udewalawe Sri Lanka
| | - Roger Rassool
- School of Physics; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Evan P. Bittner
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences; University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
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Rasmussen LE. Chemical communication: An integral part of functional Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) society. ECOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/11956860.1998.11682469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Effects of habitat, group-size, sex-age class and seasonal variation on the behavioural responses of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Munessa, Ethiopia. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467413000710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:Activity patterns of animals are generally influenced by many factors. We hypothesized that the behavioural responses (i.e. activity time-budget allocated to vigilance, feeding and moving) of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) should vary with habitat type, season, group-size and sex-age class. We randomly established a total of 12 permanent walking transects with the aid of a GPS device across three major habitat types used by the mountain nyala (i.e. four transects in each habitat). Following each transect, we conducted focal-animal observations to quantify the time-budget allocated to vigilance, feeding and moving. A total of 119 and 116 focal-animals were assessed in the wet and dry season respectively. Moreover, along each transect, seven habitat variables were collected in systematically laid 109 circular plots each with a 5-m radius (i.e. 31, 41 and 37 plots in the cleared vegetation, plantation and natural forest respectively) in the wet and dry season. We developed behavioural models by correlating the time-budget (i.e. proportion of time vigilance, feeding and moving) of the focal-animals in accordance with habitat variables, group-size and sex-age class. In the wet season, mountain nyala devoted most of their time to vigilance, but they allocated the largest proportion of their time to moving in the dry season. Vigilance differed among the three habitats and was highest in the cleared vegetation during the dry season. Contrary to expectations, adult males were more vigilant than both adult females and sub-adults during the dry season. The behavioural models based on time-budget help to predict how the mountain nyala perceive their environment and trade-off between food acquisition and safety in the wet and dry season. The study also improves our understanding of the adaptive behavioural ecology of the endangered mountain nyala.
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Abstract
AbstractLarge-scale forest encroachment in Assam, India, has led to increasing levels of human–elephant conflict. Conflict mitigation is a priority for the survival of Asian elephants Elephas maximus throughout Asia. We analysed a 3-year dataset of elephant occurrence and related instances of human–elephant conflict, from two sites in Assam, and explored the relationships between the various effects of elephants on human communities and factors influencing the spatial and temporal occurrence of these effects (proximity to water, refuge areas and villages, and human and crop density). The landscapes at both study sites have been transformed by forest loss, with large areas converted to agriculture. Remaining forest patches, which are mostly small, disconnected and degraded, as well as tea plantations, provide refuge areas for elephants as they move through the region. We found that crop depredation and property damage caused by elephants showed well-defined seasonal trends. They also showed a clear diurnal pattern, mostly occurring between 18.00 and 22.00. Small communities within 700 m of a refuge were most affected. In the management of human–elephant conflict in Assam we need to consider the refuge patches used by elephants as they move through the region, the peripheries of which are likely to be conflict hotspots. Small villages on the edges of refuges should be a priority for conflict mitigation assistance, with strategies taking into account seasonal and diurnal variation in elephant behaviour, as well as the socio-economic and cultural composition of communities.
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Mijele D, Obanda V, Omondi P, Soriguer RC, Gakuya F, Otiende M, Hongo P, Alasaad S. Spatio-temporal distribution of injured elephants in Masai Mara and the putative negative and positive roles of the local community. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71179. [PMID: 23936262 PMCID: PMC3728216 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Very few studies have ever focused on the elephants that are wounded or killed as local communities attempt to scare these animals away from their settlements and farms, or on the cases in which local people take revenge after elephants have killed or injured humans. On the other hand, local communities live in close proximity to elephants and hence can play a positive role in elephant conservation by informing the authorities of the presence of injured elephants. Methodology/Principal Findings Between 2007 and 2011, 129 elephants were monitored in Masai Mara (Kenya), of which 54 had various types of active (intentionally caused) or passive (non-intentionally caused) injuries. Also studied were 75 random control samples of apparently unaffected animals. The observed active injuries were as expected biased by age, with adults suffering more harm; on the other hand, no such bias was observed in the case of passive injuries. Bias was also observed in elephant sex since more males than females were passively and actively injured. Cases of passive and active injuries in elephants were negatively related to the proximity to roads and farms; the distribution of injured elephants was not affected by the presence of either human settlements or water sources. Overall more elephants were actively injured during the dry season than the wet season as expected. Local communities play a positive role by informing KWS authorities of the presence of injured elephants and reported 43% of all cases of injured elephants. Conclusions Our results suggest that the negative effect of local communities on elephants could be predicted by elephant proximity to farms and roads. In addition, local communities may be able to play a more positive role in elephant conservation given that they are key informants in the early detection of injured elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domnic Mijele
- Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
- * E-mail: (DM); (SA)
| | | | | | - Ramón C. Soriguer
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Samer Alasaad
- Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies (IEU), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (DM); (SA)
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Mangalam M, Singh M. Differential foraging strategies: motivation, perception and implementation in urban free-ranging dogs, Canis familiaris. Anim Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Socioecological adaptations by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, inhabiting an anthropogenically impacted habitat. Anim Behav 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. The influence of life history milestones and association networks on crop-raiding behavior in male African elephants. PLoS One 2012; 7:e31382. [PMID: 22347468 PMCID: PMC3275604 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Factors that influence learning and the spread of behavior in wild animal populations are important for understanding species responses to changing environments and for species conservation. In populations of wildlife species that come into conflict with humans by raiding cultivated crops, simple models of exposure of individual animals to crops do not entirely explain the prevalence of crop raiding behavior. We investigated the influence of life history milestones using age and association patterns on the probability of being a crop raider among wild free ranging male African elephants; we focused on males because female elephants are not known to raid crops in our study population. We examined several features of an elephant association network; network density, community structure and association based on age similarity since they are known to influence the spread of behaviors in a population. We found that older males were more likely to be raiders than younger males, that males were more likely to be raiders when their closest associates were also raiders, and that males were more likely to be raiders when their second closest associates were raiders older than them. The male association network had sparse associations, a tendency for individuals similar in age and raiding status to associate, and a strong community structure. However, raiders were randomly distributed between communities. These features of the elephant association network may limit the spread of raiding behavior and likely determine the prevalence of raiding behavior in elephant populations. Our results suggest that social learning has a major influence on the acquisition of raiding behavior in younger males whereas life history factors are important drivers of raiding behavior in older males. Further, both life-history and network patterns may influence the acquisition and spread of complex behaviors in animal populations and provide insight on managing human-wildlife conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick I Chiyo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America.
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Goswami VR, Lauretta MV, Madhusudan MD, Karanth KU. Optimizing individual identification and survey effort for photographic capture-recapture sampling of species with temporally variable morphological traits. Anim Conserv 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00501.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- V. R. Goswami
- Post-Graduate Program in Wildlife Biology and Conservation; Wildlife Conservation Society (India Program), National Centre for Biological Sciences; Bengaluru; India
| | - M. V. Lauretta
- Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences; School of Forest Resources and Conservation; University of Florida; Gainesville; FL; USA
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Chiyo PI, Lee PC, Moss CJ, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Alberts SC. No risk, no gain: effects of crop raiding and genetic diversity on body size in male elephants. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Alberts SC. Using molecular and observational techniques to estimate the number and raiding patterns of crop-raiding elephants. J Appl Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01967.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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GRAHAM MAXIMILIAND, NOTTER BENEDIKT, ADAMS WILLIAMM, LEE PHYLLISC, OCHIENG TOBIASNYUMBA. Patterns of crop-raiding by elephants,Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya, and the management of human–elephant conflict. SYST BIODIVERS 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/14772000.2010.533716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Tadesse SA, Kotler BP. Habitat Choices of Nubian Ibex (Capra Nubiana) Evaluated with A habitat Suitability Modeling and Isodar Analysis. Isr J Ecol Evol 2010. [DOI: 10.1560/ijee.56.1.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The value of a habitat for a forager may be affected by habitat characteristics related to food availability, energetic costs of foraging, predation costs, and the foraging opportunities available in other habitats. Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) are stout, sure-footed social wild goats that inhabit arid landscapes with steep terrain. We investigated their habitat selection behavior using indicators to (1) develop a habitat suitability index (HSI) model that would account for the variation in the activity densities of Nubian ibex across habitat types and seasons, (2) apply the isodar technique to look for density-dependent habitat selection behavior in Nubian ibex, and (3) investigate the proximate environmental factors that correlate to relative activity densities of Nubian ibex. We determined relative densities of the ibex by recording sightings of animals along standard walking transects. We incorporated the habitat variables that had greatest influence on the densities of Nubian ibex into habitat suitability index models for both spring and summer seasons.The HSI models revealed that Nubian ibex most preferred open cliff face habitat offering safety during the spring season, but their habitat preference shifted towards an area with watered gardens ("grave area habitat") during the summer season. Significant isodars were only obtained for the summer season comparisons between grave area versus cliff face, and between grave area versus plateau habitats. The slopes of the isodars suggest that the grave area habitat is 10.5 and 7.6 times more productive than the plateau and the cliff face habitats, respectively. Our results suggest that the relative abundances and habitat preferences of Nubian ibex varied with the seasonal availability of habitat resources, extent of predation risks, and human nuisance disturbances across the landscape. We recommend that wildlife managers dealing with the conservation and protection of the endangered Nubian ibex should focus on the various ecological and anthropogenic factors governing the habitat selection and preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon A. Tadesse
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
| | - Burt P. Kotler
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
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Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467400004004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTThe Asian elephant's foraging strategy in its natural habitat and in cultivation was studied in southern India during 1981–83. Though elephants consumed at least 112 plant species in the study area, about 85% of their diet consisted of only 25 species from the order Malvales and the families Leguminosae, Palmae, Cyperaceae and Gramineae. Alteration between a predominantly browse diet during the dry season with a grass diet during the early wet season was related to the seasonally changing protein content of grasses.Crop raiding, which was sporadic during the dry season, gradually increased with more area being cultivated with the onset of rains. Raiding frequency reached a peak during October-December, with some villages being raided almost every night, when finger millet (Eleusine coracana) was cultivated by most farmers. The monthly frequency of raiding was related to the seasonal movement of elephant herds and to the size of the enclave. Of their total annual food requirement, adult bull elephants derived an estimated 9.3% and family herds 1.7% in quantity from cultivated land. Cultivated cereal and millet crops provided significantly more protein, calcium and sodium than the wild grasses. Ultimately, crop raiding can be thought of as an extension of the elephant's optimal foraging strategy.
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Ecological sexual segregation in fallow deer (Dama dama): a multispatial and multitemporal approach. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-008-0603-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Goswami VR, Madhusudan MD, Karanth KU. Application of photographic capture?recapture modelling to estimate demographic parameters for male Asian elephants. Anim Conserv 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00124.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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45
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Schulte BA, Freeman EW, Goodwin TE, Hollister-Smith J, Rasmussen LEL. Honest signalling through chemicals by elephants with applications for care and conservation. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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46
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SUKUMAR R. A brief review of the status, distribution and biology of wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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LEE PC, GRAHAM MD. African elephants Loxodonta africana and human-elephant interactions: implications for conservation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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SITATI NW, WALPOLE MJ, LEADER-WILLIAMS N. Factors affecting susceptibility of farms to crop raiding by African elephants: using a predictive model to mitigate conflict. J Appl Ecol 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01091.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Chiyo PI, Cochrane EP. Population structure and behaviour of crop-raiding elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Afr J Ecol 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Ciuti S, Davini S, Luccarini S, Apollonio M. Could the predation risk hypothesis explain large-scale spatial sexual segregation in fallow deer (Dama dama)? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-004-0819-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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