Photosystem II of green plants: on the possible role of retarded protonic relaxation in water oxidation1

Influence of the axial ligand on the cationic properties of the chlorophyll pair in photosystem II from Thermosynechococcus vulcanus

Influence of the axial ligand of PD1 chlorophyll (D1-His-198) on the Em of monomer chlorophylls PD1 and PD2, and the PD1•+/PD2•+ charge ratio was investigated by theoretical calculations using the PSII crystal structure of Thermosynechococcus vulcanus analyzed at 1.9-Å resolution. It was found that the Em(PD1)/Em(PD2) values and PD1•+/PD2•+ ratio remained unchanged upon D1-H198Q mutation. However, Em(PD1) was increased in the D1-H198A mutant, resulting in a more even distribution of the positive charge over PD1/PD2. Introduction of a water molecule as an axial ligand resulted in equal Em values and PD1•+/PD2•+ ratios between the mutant and wild-type, thus confirming the presence of the water ligand in the mutant.

Fast structural changes (200-900ns) may prepare the photosynthetic manganese complex for oxidation by the adjacent tyrosine radical

The Mn complex of photosystem II (PSII) cycles through 4 semi-stable states (S(0) to S(3)). Laser-flash excitation of PSII in the S(2) or S(3) state induces processes with time constants around 350ns, which have been assigned previously to energetic relaxation of the oxidized tyrosine (Y(Z)(ox)). Herein we report monitoring of these processes in the time domain of hundreds of nanoseconds by photoacoustic (or 'optoacoustic') experiments involving pressure-wave detection after excitation of PSII membrane particles by ns-laser flashes. We find that specifically for excitation of PSII in the S(2) state, nuclear rearrangements are induced which amount to a contraction of PSII by at least 30Å(3) (time constant of 350ns at 25°C; activation energy of 285+/-50meV). In the S(3) state, the 350-ns-contraction is about 5 times smaller whereas in S(0) and S(1), no volume changes are detectable in this time domain. It is proposed that the classical S(2)=>S(3) transition of the Mn complex is a multi-step process. The first step after Y(Z)(ox) formation involves a fast nuclear rearrangement of the Mn complex and its protein-water environment (~350ns), which may serve a dual role: (1) The Mn- complex entity is prepared for the subsequent proton removal and electron transfer by formation of an intermediate state of specific (but still unknown) atomic structure. (2) Formation of the structural intermediate is associated (necessarily) with energetic relaxation and thus stabilization of Y(Z)(ox) so that energy losses by charge recombination with the Q(A)(-) anion radical are minimized. The intermediate formed within about 350ns after Y(Z)(ox) formation in the S(2)-state is discussed in the context of two recent models of the S(2)=>S(3) transition of the water oxidation cycle. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: From Natural to Artificial.

pH Dependent Competition between YZand YDin Photosystem II Probed by Illumination at 5 K

The photosystem II (PSII) reaction center contains two redox active tyrosines, YZ and YD, situated on the D1 and D2 proteins, respectively. By illumination at 5 K, oxidation of YZ in oxygen-evolving PSII can be observed as induction of the Split S1 EPR signal from YZ* in magnetic interaction with the CaMn4 cluster, whereas oxidation of YD can be observed as the formation of the free radical EPR signal from YD*. We have followed the light induced induction at 5 K of the Split S1 signal between pH 4-8.5. The formation of the signal, that is, the oxidation of YZ, is pH independent and efficient between pH 5.5 and 8.5. At low pH, the split signal formation decreases with pKa approximately 4.7-4.9. In samples with chemically pre-reduced YD, the pH dependent competition between YZ and YD was studied. Only YZ was oxidized below pH 7.2, but at pH above 7.2, the oxidation of YD became possible, and the formation of the Split S1 signal diminished. The onset of YD oxidation occurred with pKa approximately 8.0, while the Split S1 signal decreased with pKa approximately 7.9 demonstrating that the two tyrosines compete in this pH interval. The results reflect the formation and breaking of hydrogen bonds between YZ and D1-His190 (HisZ) and YD and D2-His190 (HisD), respectively. The oxidation of respective tyrosine at 5 K demands that the hydrogen bond is well-defined; otherwise, the low-temperature oxidation is not possible. The results are discussed in the framework of recent literature data and with respect to the different oxidation kinetics of YZ and YD.

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization in the reaction center of the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium tepidum observed by 13C MAS NMR

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization has been observed in reaction centres of the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium tepidum by (13)C magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR under continuous illumination with white light. An almost complete set of chemical shifts of the aromatic ring carbons of a BChl a molecule has been obtained. All light-induced (13)C NMR signals appear to be emissive, which is similar to the pattern observed in the reaction centers of plant photosystem I and purple bacterial reaction centres of Rhodobacter sphaeroides wild type. The donor in RCs of green sulfur bacteria clearly differs from the substantially asymmetric special pair of purple bacteria and appears to be similar to the more symmetric donor of photosystem I.

How photosynthetic reaction centers control oxidation power in chlorophyll pairs P680, P700, and P870

At the heart of photosynthetic reaction centers (RCs) are pairs of chlorophyll a (Chla), P700 in photosystem I (PSI) and P680 in photosystem II (PSII) of cyanobacteria, algae, or plants, and a pair of bacteriochlorophyll a (BChla), P870 in purple bacterial RCs (PbRCs). These pairs differ greatly in their redox potentials for one-electron oxidation, E(m). For P680, E(m) is 1,100-1,200 mV, but for P700 and P870, E(m) is only 500 mV. Calculations with the linearized Poisson-Boltzmann equation reproduce these measured E(m) differences successfully. Analyzing the origin for these differences, we found as major factors in PSII the unique Mn(4)Ca cluster (relative to PSI and PbRC), the position of P680 close to the luminal edge of transmembrane alpha-helix d (relative to PSI), local variations in the cd loop (relative to PbRC), and the intrinsically higher E(m) of Chla compared with BChla (relative to PbRC).

Function of redox-active tyrosine in photosystem II

Water oxidation at photosystem II Mn-cluster is mediated by the redox-active tyrosine Y(Z). We calculated the redox potential (E(m)) of Y(Z) and its symmetrical counterpart Y(D), by solving the linearized Poisson-Boltzmann equation. The calculated E(m)(Y( )/Y(-)) were +926 mV/+694 mV for Y(Z)/Y(D) with the Mn-cluster in S2 state. Together with the asymmetric position of the Mn-cluster relative to Y(Z/D), differences in H-bond network between Y(Z) (Y(Z)/D1-His(190)/D1-Asn(298)) and Y(D) (Y(D)/D2-His(189)/D2-Arg(294)/CP47-Glu(364)) are crucial for E(m)(Y(Z/D)). When D1-His(190) is protonated, corresponding to a thermally activated state, the calculated E(m)(Y(Z)) was +1216 mV, which is as high as the E(m) for P(D1/D2). We observed deprotonation at CP43-Arg(357) upon S-state transition, which may suggest its involvement in the proton exit pathway. E(m)(Y(D)) was affected by formation of P(D2)(+) (but not P(D1)(+)) and sensitive to the protonation state of D2-Arg(180). This points to an electrostatic link between Y(D) and P(D2).

Photo-CIDNP solid-state NMR on photosystems I and II:what makes P680 special?

The origin of the extraordinary high redox potential of P680, the primary electron donor of Photosystem II, is still unknown. Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarisation (photo-CIDNP) 13C magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR is a powerful method to study primary electron donors. In order to reveal the electronic structure of P680, we compare new photo-CIDNP MAS NMR data of Photosystem II to those of Photosystem I. The comparison reveals that the electronic structure of the P680 radical cation is a Chl a cofactor with strong matrix interaction, while the radical cation of P700, the primary electron donor of Photosystem I, appears to be a Chl a cofactor which is essentially undisturbed. Possible forms of cofactor-matrix interactions are discussed.

Coupling of electron and proton transfer in oxidative water cleavage in photosynthesis

This minireview addresses questions on the mechanism of oxidative water cleavage with special emphasis on the coupling of electron (ET) and proton transfer (PT) of each individual redox step of the reaction sequence and on the mode of O-O bond formation. The following topics are discussed: (1) the multiphasic kinetics of Y(Z)(ox) formation by P680(+*) originate from three different types of rate limitations: (i) nonadiabatic electron transfer for the "fast" ns reaction, (ii) local "dielectric" relaxation for the "slow" ns reaction, and (iii) "large-scale" proton shift for the micros kinetics; (2) the ET/PT-coupling mode of the individual redox transitions within the water oxidizing complex (WOC) driven by Y(Z)(ox) is assumed to depend on the redox state S(i): the oxidation steps of S(0) and S(1) comprise separate ET and PT pathways while those of S(2) and S(3) take place via proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) analogous to Jerry Babcock's hydrogen atom abstractor model [Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1458 (2000) 199]; (3) S(3) is postulated to be a multistate redox level of the WOC with fast dynamic equilibria of both redox isomerism and proton tautomerism. The primary event in the essential O-O bond formation is the population of a state S(3)(P) characterized by an electronic configuration and nuclear geometry that corresponds with a complexed hydrogen peroxide; (4) the peroxidic type S(3)(P) is the entatic state for formation of complexed molecular oxygen through S(3) oxidation by Y(Z)(ox); and (5) the protein matrix itself is proposed to exert catalytic activity by functioning as "PCET director". The WOC is envisaged as a supermolecule that is especially tailored for oxidative water cleavage and acts as a molecular machine.

Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives

Based on the current model of its structure and function, photosystem II (PSII) seems to have evolved from an ancestor that was homodimeric in terms of its protein core and contained a special pair of chlorophylls as the photo-oxidizable cofactor. It is proposed that the key event in the evolution of PSII was a mutation that resulted in the separation of the two pigments that made up the special chlorophyll pair, making them into two chlorophylls that were neither special nor paired. These ordinary chlorophylls, along with the two adjacent monomeric chlorophylls, were very oxidizing: a property proposed to be intrinsic to monomeric chlorophylls in the environment provided by reaction centre (RC) proteins. It seems likely that other (mainly electrostatic) changes in the environments of the pigments probably tuned their redox potentials further but these changes would have been minor compared with the redox jump imposed by splitting of the special pair. This sudden increase in redox potential allowed the development of oxygen evolution. The highly oxidizing homodimeric RC would probably have been not only inefficient in terms of photochemistry and charge storage but also wasteful in terms of protein or pigments undergoing damage due to the oxidative chemistry. These problems would have constituted selective pressures in favour of the lop-sided, heterodimeric system that exists as PSII today, in which the highly oxidized species are limited to only one side of the heterodimer: the sacrificial, rapidly turned-over D1 protein. It is also suggested that one reason for maintaining an oxidizable tyrosine, TyrD, on the D2 side of the RC, is that the proton associated with its tyrosyl radical, has an electrostatic role in confining P(+) to the expendable D1 side.

Structural and functional dynamics of plant photosystem II

Given the unique problem of the extremely high potential of the oxidant P(+)(680) that is required to oxidize water to oxygen, the photoinactivation of photosystem II in vivo is inevitable, despite many photoprotective strategies. There is, however, a robustness of photosystem II, which depends partly on the highly dynamic compositional and structural heterogeneity of the cycle between functional and non-functional photosystem II complexes in response to light level. This coordinated regulation involves photon usage (energy utilization in photochemistry) and excess energy dissipation as heat, photoprotection by many molecular strategies, photoinactivation followed by photon damage and ultimately the D1 protein dynamics involved in the photosystem II repair cycle. Compelling, though indirect evidence suggests that the radical pair P(+)(680)Pheo(-) in functional PSII should be protected from oxygen. By analogy to the tentative oxygen channel of cytochrome c oxidase, oxygen may be liberated from the two water molecules bound to the catalytic site of the Mn cluster, via a specific pathway to the membrane surface. The function of the proposed oxygen pathway is to prevent O(2) from having direct access to P(+)(680)Pheo(-) and prevent the generation of singlet oxygen via the triplet-P(680) state in functional photosytem IIs. Only when the, as yet unidentified, potential trigger with a fateful first oxidative step destroys oxygen evolution, will the ensuing cascade of structural perturbations of photosystem II destroy the proposed oxygen, water and proton pathways. Then oxygen has direct access to P(+)(680)Pheo(-), singlet oxygen will be produced and may successively oxidize specific amino acids of the phosphorylated D1 protein of photosystem II dimers that are confined to appressed granal domains, thereby targeting D1 protein for eventual degradation and replacement in non-appressed thylakoid domains.

Electrostatics and proton transfer in photosynthetic water oxidation

Photosystem II (PSII) oxidizes two water molecules to yield dioxygen plus four protons. Dioxygen is released during the last out of four sequential oxidation steps of the catalytic centre (S(0) --> S(1), S(1) --> S(2), S(2) --> S(3), S(3) --> S(4) --> S(0)). The release of the chemically produced protons is blurred by transient, highly variable and electrostatically triggered proton transfer at the periphery (Bohr effect). The extent of the latter transiently amounts to more than one H(+)/e(-) under certain conditions and this is understood in terms of electrostatics. By kinetic analyses of electron-proton transfer and electrochromism, we discriminated between Bohr-effect and chemically produced protons and arrived at a distribution of the latter over the oxidation steps of 1 : 0 : 1 : 2. During the oxidation of tyr-161 on subunit D1 (Y(Z)), its phenolic proton is not normally released into the bulk. Instead, it is shared with and confined in a hydrogen-bonded cluster. This notion is difficult to reconcile with proposed mechanisms where Y(Z) acts as a hydrogen acceptor for bound water. Only in manganese (Mn) depleted PSII is the proton released into the bulk and this changes the rate of electron transfer between Y(Z) and the primary donor of PSII P(+)(680) from electron to proton controlled. D1-His190, the proposed centre of the hydrogen-bonded cluster around Y(Z), is probably further remote from Y(Z) than previously thought, because substitution of D1-Glu189, its direct neighbour, by Gln, Arg or Lys is without effect on the electron transfer from Y(Z) to P(+)(680) (in nanoseconds) and from the Mn cluster to Y(ox)(Z).

Substrate water exchange in photosystem II depends on the peripheral proteins

The (18)O exchange rates for the substrate water bound in the S(3) state were determined in different photosystem II sample types using time-resolved mass spectrometry. The samples included thylakoid membranes, salt-washed Triton X-100-prepared membrane fragments, and purified core complexes from spinach and cyanobacteria. For each sample type, two kinetically distinct isotopic exchange rates could be resolved, indicating that the biphasic exchange behavior for the substrate water is inherent to the O(2)-evolving catalytic site in the S(3) state. However, the fast phase of exchange became somewhat slower (by a factor of approximately 2) in NaCl-washed membrane fragments and core complexes from spinach in which the 16- and 23-kDa extrinsic proteins have been removed, compared with the corresponding rate for the intact samples. For CaCl(2)-washed membrane fragments in which the 33-kDa manganese stabilizing protein (MSP) has also been removed, the fast phase of exchange slowed down even further (by a factor of approximately 3). Interestingly, the slow phase of exchange was little affected in the samples from spinach. For core complexes prepared from Synechocystis PCC 6803 and Synechococcus elongatus, the fast and slow exchange rates were variously affected. Nevertheless, within the experimental error, nearly the same exchange rates were measured for thylakoid samples made from wild type and an MSP-lacking mutant of Synechocystis PCC 6803. This result could indicate that the MSP has a slightly different function in eukaryotic organisms compared with prokaryotic organisms. In all samples, however, the differences in the exchange rates are relatively small. Such small differences are unlikely to arise from major changes in the metal-ligand structure at the catalytic site. Rather, the observed differences may reflect subtle long range effects in which the exchange reaction coordinates become slightly altered. We discuss the results in terms of solvent penetration into photosystem II and the regional dielectric around the catalytic site.

Rapid formation of the stable tyrosyl radical in photosystem II

Two symmetrically positioned redox active tyrosine residues are present in the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center. One of them, TyrZ, is oxidized in the ns-micros time scale by P680+ and reduced rapidly (micros to ms) by electrons from the Mn complex. The other one, TyrD, is stable in its oxidized form and seems to play no direct role in enzyme function. Here, we have studied electron donation from these tyrosines to the chlorophyll cation (P680+) in Mn-depleted PSII from plants and cyanobacteria. In particular, a mutant lacking TyrZ was used to investigate electron donation from TyrD. By using EPR and time-resolved absorption spectroscopy, we show that reduced TyrD is capable of donating an electron to P680+ with t1/2 approximately equal to 190 ns at pH 8.5 in approximately half of the centers. This rate is approximately 10(5) times faster than was previously thought and similar to the TyrZ donation rate in Mn-depleted wild-type PSII (pH 8.5). Some earlier arguments put forward to rationalize the supposedly slow electron donation from TyrD (compared with that from TyrZ) can be reassessed. At pH 6.5, TyrZ (t1/2 = 2-10 micros) donates much faster to P680+ than does TyrD (t1/2 > 150 micros). These different rates may reflect the different fates of the proton released from the respective tyrosines upon oxidation. The rapid rate of electron donation from TyrD requires at least partial localization of P680+ on the chlorophyll (PD2) that is located on the D2 side of the reaction center.

Photosystem II of peas: effects of added divalent cations of Mn, Fe, Mg, and Ca on two kinetic components of P(+)(680) reduction in Mn-depleted core particles

The catalytic Mn cluster of the photosynthetic oxygen-evolving system is oxidized via a tyrosine, Y(Z), by a photooxidized chlorophyll a moiety, P(+)(680). The rapid reduction of P(+)(680) by Y(Z) in nanoseconds requires the intactness of an acid/base cluster around Y(Z) with an apparent functional pK of <5. The removal of Mn (together with bound Ca) shifts the pK of the acid/base cluster from the acid into the neutral pH range. At alkaline pH the electron transfer (ET) from Y(Z) to P(+)(680) is still rapid (<1 micros), whereas at acid pH the ET is much slower (10-100 micros) and steered by proton release. In the intermediate pH domain one observes a mix of these kinetic components (see R. Ahlbrink, M. Haumann, D. Cherepanov, O. Bögershausen, A. Mulkidjanian, W. Junge, Biochemistry 37 (1998)). The overall kinetics of P(680)(+) reduction by Y(Z) in Mn-depleted photosystem II (PS II) has been previously shown to be slowed down by divalent cations (added at >10 microM), namely: Mn(2+), Co(2+), Ni(2+), Cu(2+), Zn(2+) (C.W. Hoganson, P.A. Casey, O. Hansson, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1057 (1991)). Using Mn-depleted PS II core particles from pea as starting material, we re-investigated this phenomenon at nanosecond resolution, aiming at the effect of divalent cations on the particular kinetic components of P(+)(680) reduction. To our surprise we found only the slower, proton steered component retarded by some added cations (namely Co(2+)/Zn(2+)>Fe(2+)>Mn(2+)). Neither the fast component nor the apparent pK of the acid/base cluster around Y(Z) was affected. Apparently, the divalent cations acted (electrostatically) on the proton release channel that connects the oxygen-evolving complex with the bulk water, but not on the ET between Y(Z) and P(+)(680), proper. Contrastingly, Ca(2+) and Mg(2+), when added at >5 mM, accelerated the slow component of P(+)(680) reduction by Y(Z) and shifted the apparent pK of Y(Z) from 7.4 to 6.6 and 6.7, respectively. It was evident that the binding site(s) for added Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) were close to Y(Z) proper. The data obtained are discussed in relation to the nature of the metal-binding sites in photosystem II.

Does functional photosystem II complex have an oxygen channel?

Photosystem II complex (PSII) of thylakoid membranes uses light energy to oxidise extremely stable water and produce oxygen (2H(2)O-->O(2)+4H(+)+4e(-)). PSII is compared with cytochrome c oxidase that catalyses the opposite reaction coupled to proton translocation. Cytochrome c oxidase has proton and water channels, and a tentative oxygen channel. I propose that functional PSII complexes also need a specific oxygen channel to direct O(2) from the water molecules bound to specific Mn atoms of the Mn cluster within PSII out to the membrane surface. The function of this channel will be to prevent oxygen being accessible to the radical pair P680(+)Pheo(-), thereby preventing singlet oxygen generation from the triplet P680 state in functional PSII. The important role of singlet oxygen in structurally perturbed non-functional photosystem II is also discussed.

Amino acid residues that modulate the properties of tyrosine Y(Z) and the manganese cluster in the water oxidizing complex of photosystem II

The catalytic site for photosynthetic water oxidation is embedded in a protein matrix consisting of nearly 30 different polypeptides. Residues from several of these polypeptides modulate the properties of the tetrameric Mn cluster and the redox-active tyrosine residue, Y(Z), that are located at the catalytic site. However, most or all of the residues that interact directly with Y(Z) and the Mn cluster appear to be contributed by the D1 polypeptide. This review summarizes our knowledge of the environments of Y(Z) and the Mn cluster as obtained from the introduction of site-directed, deletion, and other mutations into the photosystem II polypeptides of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Photosynthetic water oxidation: towards a mechanism

This mini-review outlines the current theories on the mechanism of electron transfer from water to P680, the location and structure of the water oxidising complex and the role of the manganese cluster. We discuss how our data fit in with current theories and put forward our ideas on the location and mechanism of water oxidation.

Proton and hydrogen currents in photosynthetic water oxidation

The photosynthetic processes that lead to water oxidation involve an evolution in time from photon dynamics to photochemically-driven electron transfer to coupled electron/proton chemistry. The redox-active tyrosine, Y(Z), is the component at which the proton currents necessary for water oxidation are switched on. The thermodynamic and kinetic implications of this function for Y(Z) are discussed. These considerations also provide insight into the related roles of Y(Z) in preserving the high photochemical quantum efficiency in Photosystem II (PSII) and of conserving the highly oxidizing conditions generated by the photochemistry in the PSII reaction center. The oxidation of Y(Z) by P(680)(+) can be described well by a treatment that invokes proton coupling within the context of non-adiabatic electron transfer. The reduction of Y(.)(Z), however, appears to proceed by an adiabatic process that may have hydrogen-atom transfer character.

Probing the CD lumenal loop region of the D2 protein of photosystem II in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 by combinatorial mutagenesis

The CD lumenal loop region of the photosystem II reaction center protein D2 contains residues involved in oxygen evolution. Since detailed structural information about this region is unavailable, an M13-based combinatorial mutagenesis approach was used to investigate structure-function relationships in this vital region of D2 in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. The CD loop coding region contains close to 100 nucleotides, and for effective mutagenesis, it was subdivided into four regions of seven to eight codons. A gain-of-function selection protocol was employed such that all mutants that were selected contained a functional D2 protein. In this way, conservation patterns of residues along with numbers and types of amino acid substitutions accommodated at each position for each set of mutants would indicate which residues in the CD loop may play important structural and functional roles. Results of this study have substantiated the importance of residues previously studied by site-directed mutagenesis such as Arg180 and His189 and have identified other previously unremarkable residues in the CD loop (such as Ser166, Phe169, and Ala170) that cannot be replaced by many other residues. In addition, the pliability of the CD loop was further tested using deletion and D1-D2 substitution constructs in M13. This showed that the length of the loop was important to its function, and in two cases, D2 could accommodate homologous sequences from D1, which forms a heterodimer with D2 in photosystem II, but not the other way around. This study of the CD loop in D2 provides valuable clues regarding the structural and functional requirements of the region.

Comparative study of the g=4.1 EPR signals in the S(2) state of photosystem II

The Mn(4) complex which is involved in water oxidation in photosystem II is known to exhibit three types of EPR signals in the S(2) state, one of the five redox states of the enzyme cycle: a multiline signal (spin 1/2), signals at g5 (spin 5/2) and a signal at g=4.1 (or g=4.25). The g=4.1 signal could be generated under two distinct sets of conditions: either by illumination at room temperature or at 200 K in certain experimental conditions (g4(S) signal) or by near-infrared illumination between approximately 77 and approximately 160 K of the S(2)-multiline state (g4(IR) signal). The two g=4.1 signals arise from states which have quite different stability in terms of temperature. In the present work we have compared these two signals in order to test if they originate from the same or from different chemical origins. The microwave power saturation properties of the two signals measured at 4.2 K were found to be virtually identical. Their temperature dependencies measured at non-saturating powers were also identical. The presence of Curie law behavior for the g4(S) and g4(IR) signals indicates that the states responsible for both signals are ground states. The orientation dependence, anisotropy and resolved hyperfine structure of the two g4 signals were also found to be virtually indistinguishable. We have been unable to confirm the behavior reported earlier indicating that the g4(S) signal is an excited state, nor were we able to confirm the presence of signal from a higher excited state in samples containing the g4(S), nor a radical signal in samples containing the g4(IR). These findings are best interpreted assuming that the two signals have a common origin i.e. a spin 5/2 ground state arising from a magnetically coupled Mn-cluster of 4 Mn ions.

Conformationally controlled pK-switching in membrane proteins: one more mechanism specific to the enzyme catalysis?

Internal proton displacements in several membrane photosynthetic enzymes are analyzed in relation to general mechanisms of enzymatic catalysis. In the bacterial photosynthetic reaction center (RC) and in bacteriorhodopsin (BR), carboxy residues (Glu-212 in the RC L-subunit and Asp-96 in BR) serve as indispensable intrinsic proton donors. Both carboxyls are protonated prior to the proton-donation step, because their pK values are shifted to >/=12.0 by the interaction with the protein and/or substrate. In both cases, the proton transfer reactions are preceded by conformational changes that, supposedly, let water interact with the carboxyls. These changes switch over the pK values of the carboxyls to </=6.0 and 7.1 in the RC and BR, respectively. The sharp increase in the proton-donating ability of the carboxyls drives the reaction cycles. This kind of catalytic mechanism, where a strong general acid or base emerges, when needed, as a result of a conformational change can be denoted as a conformationally controlled pK-switching. Generally, the ability of enzymes to go between isoenergetic conformations that differ widely in the reactivity of the catalytic group(s) may be of crucial importance to the understanding of enzymatic catalysis. Particularly, the pK-switching concept could help to reconcile the contradictory views on the functional protonation state of the redox-active tyrosine Y(Z) in the oxygen-evolving photosystem II. It is conceivable that Y(Z) switches its pK from approximately 4.5 to >/=10.0 upon the last, rate-limiting step of water oxidation. By turning into a strong base, tyrosine assists then in abstracting a proton from the bound substrate water and helps to drive the dioxygen formation.