A voltage-independent K+ conductance activated by cell swelling in Ehrlich cells is modulated by a G-protein-mediated process

TASK-2 K₂p K⁺ channel: thoughts about gating and its fitness to physiological function

TASK-2 (K2P5) was one of the earliest members of the K2P two-pore, four transmembrane domain K(+) channels to be identified. TASK-2 gating is controlled by changes in both extra- and intracellular pH through separate sensors: arginine 224 and lysine 245, located at the extra- and intracellular ends of transmembrane domain 4. TASK-2 is inhibited by a direct effect of CO2 and is regulated by and interacts with G protein subunits. TASK-2 takes part in regulatory adjustments and is a mediator in the chemoreception process in neurons of the retrotrapezoid nucleus where its pHi sensitivity could be important in regulating excitability and therefore signalling of the O2/CO2 status. Extracellular pH increases brought about by HCO3 (-) efflux from proximal tubule epithelial cells have been proposed to couple to TASK-2 activation to maintain electrochemical gradients favourable to HCO3 (-) reabsorption. We demonstrate that, as suspected previously, TASK-2 is expressed at the basolateral membrane of the same proximal tubule cells that express apical membrane Na(+)-H(+)-exchanger NHE-3 and basolateral membrane Na(+)-HCO3 (-) cotransporter NBCe1-A, the main components of the HCO3 (-) transport machinery. We also discuss critically the mechanism by which TASK-2 is modulated and impacts the process of HCO3 (-) reclaim by the proximal tubule epithelium, concluding that more than a mere shift in extracellular pH is probably involved.

TASK-2: a K2P K(+) channel with complex regulation and diverse physiological functions

TASK-2 (K2P5.1) is a two-pore domain K(+) channel belonging to the TALK subgroup of the K2P family of proteins. TASK-2 has been shown to be activated by extra- and intracellular alkalinization. Extra- and intracellular pH-sensors reside at arginine 224 and lysine 245 and might affect separate selectivity filter and inner gates respectively. TASK-2 is modulated by changes in cell volume and a regulation by direct G-protein interaction has also been proposed. Activation by extracellular alkalinization has been associated with a role of TASK-2 in kidney proximal tubule bicarbonate reabsorption, whilst intracellular pH-sensitivity might be the mechanism for its participation in central chemosensitive neurons. In addition to these functions TASK-2 has been proposed to play a part in apoptotic volume decrease in kidney cells and in volume regulation of glial cells and T-lymphocytes. TASK-2 is present in chondrocytes of hyaline cartilage, where it is proposed to play a central role in stabilizing the membrane potential. Additional sites of expression are dorsal root ganglion neurons, endocrine and exocrine pancreas and intestinal smooth muscle cells. TASK-2 has been associated with the regulation of proliferation of breast cancer cells and could become target for breast cancer therapeutics. Further work in native tissues and cells together with genetic modification will no doubt reveal the details of TASK-2 functions that we are only starting to suspect.

G protein modulation of K2P potassium channel TASK-2 : a role of basic residues in the C terminus domain

TASK-2 (K2P5.1) is a background K(+) channel opened by extra- or intracellular alkalinisation that plays a role in renal bicarbonate handling, central chemoreception and cell volume regulation. Here, we present results that suggest that TASK-2 is also modulated by Gβγ subunits of heterotrimeric G protein. TASK-2 was strongly inhibited when GTP-γ-S was used as a replacement for intracellular GTP. No inhibition was present using GDP-β-S instead. Purified Gβγ introduced intracellularly also inhibited TASK-2 independently of whether GTP or GDP-β-S was present. The effects of GTP-γ-S and Gβγ subunits were abolished by neutralisation of TASK-2 C terminus double lysine residues K257-K258 or K296-K297. Use of membrane yeast two hybrid (MYTH) experiments and immunoprecipitation assays using tagged proteins gave evidence for a physical interaction between Gβ1 and Gβ2 subunits and TASK-2, in agreement with expression of these subunits in proximal tubule cells. Co-immunoprecipitation was impeded by mutating C terminus K257-K258 (but not K296-K297) to alanines. Gating by extra- or intracellular pH was unaltered in GTP-γ-S-insensitive TASK-2-K257A-K258A mutant. Shrinking TASK-2-expressing cells in hypertonic solution decreased the current to 36 % of its initial value. The same manoeuvre had a significantly diminished effect on TASK-2-K257A-K258A- or TASK-2-K296-K297-expressing cells, or in cells containing intracellular GDP-β-S. Our data are compatible with the concept that TASK-2 channels are modulated by Gβγ subunits of heterotrimeric G protein. We propose that this modulation is a novel way in which TASK-2 can be tuned to its physiological functions.

Ion channels involved in cell volume regulation: effects on migration, proliferation, and programmed cell death in non adherent EAT cells and adherent ELA cells

This mini review outlines studies of cell volume regulation in two closely related mammalian cell lines: nonadherent Ehrlich ascites tumour cells (EATC) and adherent Ehrlich Lettre ascites (ELA) cells. Focus is on the regulatory volume decrease (RVD) that occurs after cell swelling, the volume regulatory ion channels involved, and the mechanisms (cellular signalling pathways) that regulate these channels. Finally, I shall also briefly review current investigations in these two cell lines that focuses on how changes in cell volume can regulate cell functions such as cell migration, proliferation, and programmed cell death.

Cell volume homeostatic mechanisms: effectors and signalling pathways

Cell volume homeostasis and its fine-tuning to the specific physiological context at any given moment are processes fundamental to normal cell function. The understanding of cell volume regulation owes much to August Krogh, yet has advanced greatly over the last decades. In this review, we outline the historical context of studies of cell volume regulation, focusing on the lineage started by Krogh, Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen, Hans-Henrik Ussing, and their students. The early work was focused on understanding the functional behaviour, kinetics and thermodynamics of the volume-regulatory ion transport mechanisms. Later work addressed the mechanisms through which cellular signalling pathways regulate the volume regulatory effectors or flux pathways. These studies were facilitated by the molecular identification of most of the relevant channels and transporters, and more recently also by the increased understanding of their structures. Finally, much current research in the field focuses on the most up- and downstream components of these paths: how cells sense changes in cell volume, and how cell volume changes in turn regulate cell function under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Physiology of cell volume regulation in vertebrates

The ability to control cell volume is pivotal for cell function. Cell volume perturbation elicits a wide array of signaling events, leading to protective (e.g., cytoskeletal rearrangement) and adaptive (e.g., altered expression of osmolyte transporters and heat shock proteins) measures and, in most cases, activation of volume regulatory osmolyte transport. After acute swelling, cell volume is regulated by the process of regulatory volume decrease (RVD), which involves the activation of KCl cotransport and of channels mediating K(+), Cl(-), and taurine efflux. Conversely, after acute shrinkage, cell volume is regulated by the process of regulatory volume increase (RVI), which is mediated primarily by Na(+)/H(+) exchange, Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransport, and Na(+) channels. Here, we review in detail the current knowledge regarding the molecular identity of these transport pathways and their regulation by, e.g., membrane deformation, ionic strength, Ca(2+), protein kinases and phosphatases, cytoskeletal elements, GTP binding proteins, lipid mediators, and reactive oxygen species, upon changes in cell volume. We also discuss the nature of the upstream elements in volume sensing in vertebrate organisms. Importantly, cell volume impacts on a wide array of physiological processes, including transepithelial transport; cell migration, proliferation, and death; and changes in cell volume function as specific signals regulating these processes. A discussion of this issue concludes the review.

On the role of G-protein coupled receptors in cell volume regulation

Cell volume is determined genetically for each cell lineage, but it is not a static feature of the cell. Intracellular volume is continuously challenged by metabolic reactions, uptake of nutrients, intracellular displacement of molecules and organelles and generation of ionic gradients. Moreover, recent evidence raises the intriguing possibility that changes in cell volume act as signals for basic cell functions such as proliferation, migration, secretion and apoptosis. Cells adapt to volume increase by a complex, dynamic process resulting from the concerted action of volume sensing mechanisms and intricate signaling chains, directed to initiate the multiple adaptations demanded by a change in cell volume, among others adhesion reactions, membrane and cytoskeleton remodeling, and activation of the osmolyte pathways leading to reestablish the water balance between extracellular/intracellular or intracellular/intracellular compartments. In multicellular organisms, a continuous interaction with the external milieu is fundamental for the dynamics of the cell. It is in this sense that the recent surge of interest about the influence on cell volume control by the most extended family of signaling elements, the G proteins, acquires particular importance. As here reviewed, a large variety of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in this interplay with cell volume regulatory mechanisms, which amplifies and diversifies the volume-elicited signaling chains, providing a variety of routes towards the multiple effectors related to cell volume changes.

Swelling-activated ion channels: functional regulation in cell-swelling, proliferation and apoptosis

Cell volume regulation is one of the most fundamental homeostatic mechanisms and essential for normal cellular function. At the same time, however, many physiological mechanisms are associated with regulatory changes in cell size meaning that the set point for cell volume regulation is under physiological control. Thus, cell volume is under a tight and dynamic control and abnormal cell volume regulation will ultimately lead to severe cellular dysfunction, including alterations in cell proliferation and cell death. This review describes the different swelling-activated ion channels that participate as key players in the maintenance of normal steady-state cell volume, with particular emphasis on the intracellular signalling pathways responsible for their regulation during hypotonic stress, cell proliferation and apoptosis.