The origins of height fear: an evaluation of neoconditioning explanations

Evaluation of a "walk-through" ladder top design during ladder-roof transitioning tasks

This study evaluated the effect of an extension ladder "walk-through" top design on kinetic and kinematic behaviors and the outward destabilizing forces induced on the ladder during transitioning at elevation. Thirty-two male participants performed stepping tasks between a ladder top and a roof at simulated elevation in a surround-screen virtual-reality system. The experimental conditions included a "walk-through" and a standard ladder top section supported on flat and sloped roof surfaces. Three force platforms were placed under the ladder section and in the roof to measure propulsion forces during transitions. A motion measurement system was used to record trunk kinematics. The frictional demand at the virtual ladder base was also calculated. The results indicate that under optimal ladder setup (angle 75.5 °), the frictional demand at the ladder base remains relatively small for all experimental conditions. Also, the "walk through" ladder top eased the ladder-to-roof transitions but not the roof-to-ladder transitions.

The Legacy of Seligman's "Phobias and Preparedness" (1971)

Seligman's (1971) classic article, "Phobias and Preparedness," marked a break from traditional conditioning theories of the etiology of phobias, inspiring a line of research integrating evolutionary theory with learning theory. In this article, I briefly sketch the context motivating the preparedness theory of phobias before summarizing the initial wave of laboratory conditioning experiments pioneered by Öhman and conducted by his team and by others to test predictions derived from Seligman's theory. Finally, I review the legacy of Seligman's article, including theoretical developments embodied in Öhman and Mineka's fear module approach as well as alternatives for explaining "preparedness" phenomena, including the selective sensitization, expectancy, and nonassociative theories. Although Seligman himself soon moved on to other topics, his seminal article in Behavior Therapy continues to inspire research more than four decades later that has deepened our understanding of the etiology of phobias.

Influence of Music on Anxiety Induced by Fear of Heights in Virtual Reality

Music is a potent mood regulator that can induce relaxation and reduce anxiety in different situations. While several studies demonstrate that certain types of music have a subjective anxiolytic effect, the reported results from physiological responses are less conclusive. Virtual reality allows us to study diverse scenarios of real life under strict experimental control while preserving high ecological validity. We aimed to study the modulating effect of music on the anxiety responses triggered by an immersive virtual reality scenario designed to induce fear of heights. Subjects experienced a virtual scenario depicting an exterior elevator platform ascending and descending the total height of its 350 meters tall supporting structure. Participants were allocated to either a group that experienced the elevator ride with background music or without, in a between-groups design. Furthermore, each group included participants with different degrees of fear of heights, ranging from low to high fear. Recordings of heart rate, galvanic skin response, body balance, and head movements were obtained during the experiments. Subjective anxiety was measured by means of three questionnaires. The scenario produced significant changes in subjective and physiological measures, confirming its efficacy as a stressor. A significant increase in state anxiety was found between pre and post-assessment in the silence group, but not in the music group, indicating that post-stress recovery was faster in the musical group. Results suggest that music can ameliorate the subjective anxiety produced by fear of heights.

The Origins of Specific Phobias: Influential Theories and Current Perspectives

Fears are quick and adaptive responses that permit powerful reply to imminent threats. Less adaptive, phobias are extreme manifestations of fear to objects or situations in the absence of a proportional danger. Although the utility of fear is accepted, the nature of phobias is controversial. Initial theories favored a fear conditioning-based explanation, with vicarious and information learning pathways subsequently included as additional routes to the development of specific phobias. More recently, an important group of investigations strengthened the case for a nonassociative account of fear acquisition proposing that evolutionarily relevant fears can occur without any need of critical learning experiences. In parallel, there is some evidence for a dedicated fear module in the detection of threats, involving the amygdala, which is relatively independent from conscious cognitive control. Nonetheless, cognitive models stress learning and developmental factors and their role in the etiology and maintenance of phobic behavior. This article critically reviews each of these views and theories stressing their recent developments, weaknesses, and controversies with an aim to provide the groundwork for the construction of a more integrated position. Finally, the authors suggest encouraging trends in recent research.

The use of virtual reality in acrophobia research and treatment

Acrophobia, or fear of heights, is a widespread and debilitating anxiety disorder affecting perhaps 1 in 20 adults. Virtual reality (VR) technology has been used in the psychological treatment of acrophobia since 1995, and has come to dominate the treatment of numerous anxiety disorders. It is now known that virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) regimens are highly effective for acrophobia treatment. This paper reviews current theoretical understanding of acrophobia as well as the evolution of its common treatments from the traditional exposure therapies to the most recent virtually guided ones. In particular, the review focuses on recent innovations in the use of VR technology and discusses the benefits it may offer for examining the underlying causes of the disorder, allowing for the systematic assessment of interrelated factors such as the visual, vestibular and postural control systems.

Individual differences in distance perception

Distance perception is among the most pervasive mental phenomena and the oldest research topics in behavioural science. However, we do not understand well the most pervasive finding of distance perception research, that of large individual differences. There are large individual differences in acrophobia (fear of heights), which we commonly assume consists of an abnormal fear of stimuli perceived normally. Evolved navigation theory (ENT) instead suggests that acrophobia consists of a more normal fear of stimuli perceived abnormally. ENT suggests that distance perception individual differences produce major components of acrophobia. Acrophobia tested over a broad range in the present study predicted large individual differences in distance estimation of surfaces that could produce falls. This fear of heights correlated positively with distance estimates of a vertical surface-even among non-acrophobic individuals at no risk of falling and without knowledge of being tested for acrophobia. Acrophobia score predicted magnitude of the descent illusion, which is thought to reflect the risk of falling. These data hold important implications in environmental navigation, clinical aetiology and the evolution of visual systems.

Exposure to heights in a theme park: fear, dizziness, and body sway

Fear of heights results in the experience of dizziness and measurable body sway. We investigated the relationship between fear, dizziness, and body sway during height exposure 16 m above ground. Thirty five healthy participants stood on a force-plate to measure sway before, during, and after exposure and an ECG was recorded. Self-report measures were anticipated fear and dizziness before exposure, as well as actual fear and dizziness during the three situations. For all participants, fear, dizziness, and body sway were increased during exposure. Anticipated fear most reliably predicted body sway during exposure. In addition, persons scoring high on trait fear of heights anticipated and experienced more fear during exposure, but this relationship was not found for any objective measure. There was no evidence that vestibular function moderates the relationship between sub-clinical fear and body sway. The results underline the importance of cognitive factors, like anticipatory anxiety and overestimation of bodily symptoms, in fear of heights.

Evolutionary Mechanisms of Fear and Anxiety

This article examines evolutionary mechanisms in human fear and anxiety, with a particular focus on specific phobias and social phobia. The contribution of evolutionary factors to the development of specific phobias has led to refinements and modifications of earlier conditioning theories. Evolutionary mechanisms further affect cognitive factors of fear and anxiety, such as self-related processes and social comparisons, as in the case of social phobia. Although not without controversy, an evolutionary theory of human fear and anxiety adds a unique perspective that could potentially lead to improved psychopathology models, nosological systems, and treatment strategies for anxiety disorders.

Clinical Psychology and Evolutionary Psychology: Toward a Dialogue

The growth of evolutionary psychology as a theoretical framework for the study of human behavior has been spectacular. However, evolutionary psychology has been largely ignored by clinical psychology. This article is an attempt to encourage greater dialogue between the two. First, some of the major principles of evolutionary psychology are outlined, followed by consideration of some of the criticisms that have been made of this approach. Second, an attempt is made to trace the influence of evolutionary theory on the history and development of clinical psychology. Third, the authors describe how an evolutionary perspective has enhanced the understanding and study of autism and depression. Finally, some implications of an evolutionary perspective for etiological theory, assessment, treatment, and ethics are discussed.

Non-associative fear acquisition: a review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research

It is axiomatic that the capacity to experience fear is adaptive, enabling rapid and energetic response to imminent threat or danger. Despite the generally accepted utility of functional fear, the nature of maladaptive fear remains controversial. There is still no consensus about how specific fears and phobias are acquired and modulated. Two major schools of thought are apparent: those suggesting dysfunctional fear arises largely as the result of associative-conditioning processes versus those who favour more biologically based etiological explanations. In this regard, the non-associative model of fear acquisition postulates the existence of a limited number of innate, evolutionary-relevant fears, while emphasising conditioning modes of onset for evolutionary-neutral fears. Recent retrospective and longitudinal studies have tested predictions from the non-associative model. In general, findings support non-associative hypotheses and are difficult to reconcile with neo-conditioning explanations of fear acquisition. These data suggest that four pathways to fear may provide the most parsimonious theory of fear etiology. The theoretical and practical implications of adding a fourth, non-associative path to Rachman's (Behav. Res. Ther. (1977) 15, 375-387) three 'associative' pathways are discussed. Unresolved issues requiring further investigation are considered.

Fears born and bred: toward a more inclusive theory of fear acquisition

Alleged differences between associative and non-associative perspectives are sometimes more apparent than real. The non-associative model describes a pathway to fear that is complementary to associative pathways. It does not seek to usurp conditioning models as applied to evolutionary-neutral fear. We discuss vexing definitional issues surrounding what qualifies as a conditioning event and what characterises the non-associative pathway. Genetic findings are shown to be consistent with the non-associative model of fear. Following discussion of the relation between stress-diathesis models and the non-associative position we conclude by urging a developmental, life-course approach to the understanding of fear acquisition.

Born to fear: non-associative vs associative factors in the etiology of phobias

Poulton and Menzies (Behaviour Research & Therapy 40 (2001) 127-149) review two lines of evidence as supporting a non-associative pathway to the origins of "evolutionary relevant phobias". First, in retrospective studies of mode of onset some recall they have always had this fear. We review here solid evidence that retrospective recall is notoriously unreliable. Second, they note as many nonphobics recall relevant associative learning experiences as do phobics. We argue such studies are very inconclusive because they fail to consider many experiential and personality vulnerability (and invulnerability) factors that strongly impact the outcome of any putative learning experience. Their argument also does not explain the transition from developmental fears to phobias that is central to their thesis. Overall, we call for major methodological improvements in this area, in the context of theoretical developments pointing to interacting vulnerability and invulnerability factors.