Cardiovascular responses and neurotransmitter changes following blockade of nNOS within the ventrolateral medulla during static muscle contraction

Inhibitors of NLRP3 Inflammasome Formation: A Cardioprotective Role for the Gasotransmitters Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide, and Hydrogen Sulphide in Acute Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial ischaemia reperfusion injury (IRI) occurring from acute coronary artery disease or cardiac surgical interventions such as bypass surgery can result in myocardial dysfunction, presenting as, myocardial "stunning", arrhythmias, infarction, and adverse cardiac remodelling, and may lead to both a systemic and a localised inflammatory response. This localised cardiac inflammatory response is regulated through the nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain (NACHT), leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing protein family pyrin domain (PYD)-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a multimeric structure whose components are present within both cardiomyocytes and in cardiac fibroblasts. The NLRP3 inflammasome is activated via numerous danger signals produced by IRI and is central to the resultant innate immune response. Inhibition of this inherent inflammatory response has been shown to protect the myocardium and stop the occurrence of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome following the re-establishment of cardiac circulation. Therapies to prevent NLRP3 inflammasome formation in the clinic are currently lacking, and therefore, new pharmacotherapies are required. This review will highlight the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome within the myocardium during IRI and will examine the therapeutic value of inflammasome inhibition with particular attention to carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen sulphide as potential pharmacological inhibitors of NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Sex Differences in Biological Processes and Nitrergic Signaling in Mouse Brain

Nitric oxide (NO) represents an important signaling molecule which modulates the functions of different organs, including the brain. S-nitrosylation (SNO), a post-translational modification that involves the binding of the NO group to a cysteine residue, is a key mechanism of nitrergic signaling. Most of the experimental studies are carried out on male animals. However, significant differences exist between males and females in the signaling mechanisms. To investigate the sex differences in the SNO-based regulation of biological functions and signaling pathways in the cortices of 6–8-weeks-old mice, we used the mass spectrometry technique, to identify S-nitrosylated proteins, followed by large-scale computational biology. This work revealed significant sex differences in the NO and SNO-related biological functions in the cortices of mice for the first-time. The study showed significant SNO-induced enrichment of the synaptic processes in female mice, but enhanced SNO-related cytoskeletal processes in the male mice. Proteins, which were S-nitrosylated in the cortices of mice of both groups, were more abundant in the female brain. Finally, we investigated the shared molecular processes that were found in both sexes. This study presents a mechanistic insight into the role of S-nitrosylation in both sexes and provides strong evidence of sex difference in many biological processes and signalling pathways, which will open future research directions on sex differences in neurological disorders.

Swimming Training Modulates Nitric Oxide-Glutamate Interaction in the Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla in Normotensive Conscious Rats

We evaluated the effects of swimming training on nitric oxide (NO) modulation to glutamate microinjection within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) in conscious freely moving rats. Male Wistar rats were submitted to exercise training (Tr) by swimming or kept sedentary (Sed) for 4 weeks. After the last training session, RVLM guide cannulas and arterial/venous catheters were chronically implanted. Arterial pressure (AP), heart rate (HR), and baroreflex control of HR (loading/unloading of baroreceptors) were recorded in conscious rats at rest. Pressor response to L-glutamate in the RVLM was compared before and after blockade of local nitric oxide (NO) production. In other Tr and Sed groups, brain was harvested for gene (qRT-PCR) and protein (immunohistochemistry) expression of NO synthase (NOS) isoforms and measurement of NO content (nitrite assay) within the RVLM. Trained rats exhibited resting bradycardia (average reduction of 9%), increased baroreflex gain (Tr: −4.41 ± 0.5 vs. Sed: −2.42 ± 0.31 b/min/mmHg), and unchanged resting MAP. The pressor response to glutamate was smaller in the Tr group (32 ± 4 vs. 53 ± 2 mmHg, p < 0.05); this difference disappeared after RVLM pretreatment with carboxy-PTIO (NO scavenger), Nw-Propyl-L-Arginine and L-NAME (NOS inhibitors). eNOS immunoreactivity observed mainly in RVLM capillaries was higher in Tr, but eNOS gene expression was reduced. nNOS gene and protein expression was slightly reduced (−29 and −9%, respectively, P > 0.05). Also, RVLM NO levels were significantly reduced in Tr (−63% vs. Sed). After microinjection of a NO-donor, the attenuated pressor response of L-glutamate in Tr group was restored. Data indicate that swimming training by decreasing RVLM NO availability and glutamatergic neurotransmission to locally administered glutamate may contribute to decreased sympathetic activity in trained subjects.

Spontaneously hypertensive rats have more orexin neurons in the hypothalamus and enhanced orexinergic input and orexin 2 receptor-associated nitric oxide signalling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? Our previous study demonstrates that elevated orexin 2 receptor (OX2R) activity within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) contributes to hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), and a lower OX2R protein level was detected in their RVLM. The present study aims to explore the mechanisms underlying elevated orexinergic activity in the RVLM of SHRs, compared with their normotensive counterparts, Wistar-Kyoto rats. What is the main finding and its importance? Increased orexinergic input into the RVLM and enhanced OX2R responsiveness in the RVLM, which was mainly mediated by augmented OX2R-neuronal nitric oxide synthase signalling, may underlie the elevated OX2R activity within the RVLM of SHRs. Our previous study showed that elevated orexin 2 receptor (OX2R) activity within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) contributes to hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Herein, we investigated the mechanism(s) underlying the elevated OX2R activity. The following results were found. (i) More hypothalamic orexin A-immunoreactive (OXA-IR) cells existed in SHRs than in Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats at either 4 (2217 ± 43 versus 1809 ± 69) or 16 weeks of age (1829 ± 59 versus 1230 ± 84). The number of OXA-IR cells that project to the RVLM was higher in 16-week-old SHRs than in WKY rats (91 ± 11 versus 52 ± 11). (ii) Higher numbers of OXA-IR and RVLM-projecting OXA-IR cells were found in the dorsomedial and perifornical hypothalamus of 16-week-old SHRs. (iii) Spontaneously hypertensive rats had higher levels of orexin A and B in the hypothalamus and higher levels of orexin A in the RVLM than did WKY rats. (iv) Unilateral intra-RVLM application of OX2R agonist, orexin A or [Ala(11), d-Leu(15)]-orexin B (50 pmol) induced a larger pressor response in SHRs than in WKY rats. (v) Intra-RVLM pretreatment with a neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, 7-nitro-indazole (2.5 pmol), or a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor, methylene blue (250 pmol), reduced the intra-RVLM [Ala(11), d-Leu(15) ]-orexin B-induced pressor response in both WKY rats and SHRs. In contrast, an inducible NOS inhibitor, aminoguanidine (100 pmol), was ineffective. (vi) Neuronal NOS was co-expressed with OX2R in RVLM neurons. In conclusion, increased orexinergic input and enhanced OX2R-neuronal NOS signalling may underlie elevated OX2R activity in the RVLM and contribute to the pathophysiology of hypertension in SHRs.

Modulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and cardiovascular responses during static exercise following iNOS antagonism within the ventrolateral medulla

Previous reports indicate that inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) blockade within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM) differentially modulated cardiovascular responses, medullary glutamate, and GABA concentrations during static skeletal muscle contraction. In the current study, we determined the role of iNOS antagonism within the RVLM and CVLM on cardiovascular responses and iNOS protein expression during the exercise pressor reflex in anesthetized rats. Following 120 min of bilateral microdialysis of a selective iNOS antagonist, aminoguanidine (AGN; 10 µM), into the RVLM, the pressor responses were attenuated by 72 % and changes in heart rate were reduced by 38 % during a static muscle contraction. Furthermore, western blot analysis of iNOS protein abundance within the RVLM revealed a significant attenuation when compared to control animals. In contrast, bilateral administration of AGN (10 µM) into the CVLM augmented the increases in mean arterial pressure by 60 % and potentiated changes in heart rate by 61 % during muscle contractions, but did not alter expression of the iNOS protein within the CVLM. These results demonstrate that iNOS protein expression within the ventrolateral medulla is differentially regulated by iNOS blockade that may, in part, contribute to the modulation of cardiovascular responses during static exercise.

Nitric oxide in the nervous system: biochemical, developmental, and neurobiological aspects

Nitric oxide (NO) is a very reactive molecule, and its short half-life would make it virtually invisible until its discovery. NO activates soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), increasing 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate levels to activate PKGs. Although NO triggers several phosphorylation cascades due to its ability to react with Fe II in heme-containing proteins such as sGC, it also promotes a selective posttranslational modification in cysteine residues by S-nitrosylation, impacting on protein function, stability, and allocation. In the central nervous system (CNS), NO synthesis usually requires a functional coupling of nitric oxide synthase I (NOS I) and proteins such as NMDA receptors or carboxyl-terminal PDZ ligand of NOS (CAPON), which is critical for specificity and triggering of selected pathways. NO also modulates CREB (cAMP-responsive element-binding protein), ERK, AKT, and Src, with important implications for nerve cell survival and differentiation. Differences in the regulation of neuronal death or survival by NO may be explained by several mechanisms involving localization of NOS isoforms, amount of NO being produced or protein sets being modulated. A number of studies show that NO regulates neurotransmitter release and different aspects of synaptic dynamics, such as differentiation of synaptic specializations, microtubule dynamics, architecture of synaptic protein organization, and modulation of synaptic efficacy. NO has also been associated with synaptogenesis or synapse elimination, and it is required for long-term synaptic modifications taking place in axons or dendrites. In spite of tremendous advances in the knowledge of NO biological effects, a full description of its role in the CNS is far from being completely elucidated.

Effects of medullary administration of a nitric oxide precursor on cardiovascular responses and neurotransmission during static exercise following ischemic stroke

We have reported that in rats with a 90 min left middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and 24 h reperfusion, pressor responses during muscle contractions were attenuated, as were glutamate concentrations in the left rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and left caudal VLM (CVLM), but gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels increased in left RVLM and CVLM. This study determined the effects of L-arginine, a nitric oxide (NO) precursor, within the RVLM and (or) CVLM on cardiovascular activity and glutamate/GABA levels during static exercise in left-sided MCAO rats. Microdialysis of L-arginine into left RVLM had a greater attenuation of cardiovascular responses, a larger decrease in glutamate, and a significant increase in GABA levels during muscle contractions in stroke rats. Administration of N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, an NO-synthase inhibitor, reversed the effects. In contrast, L-arginine administration into left CVLM evoked a greater potentiation of cardiovascular responses, increased glutamate, and decreased GABA levels during contractions in stroked rats. However, L-arginine administration into both left RVLM and left CVLM elicited responses similar to its infusion into the left RVLM. These results suggest that NO within the RVLM and CVLM modulates cardiovascular responses and glutamate/GABA neurotransmission during static exercise following stroke, and that a RVLM-NO mechanism has a dominant effect in the medullary regulation of cardiovascular function.

Nitric oxide regulation of autonomic function in heart failure

Nitric oxide (NO) functions at all levels of the autonomic nervous system to influence sympathetic and parasympathetic control of cardiovascular function. It modulates the excitability of peripheral sensory and motor neurons of cardiovascular reflexes and the central neurons that integrate their function. Its effects within this system are diverse and site specific and are (at many levels) not well defined. However, most evidence suggests that the neuromodulator's influence acts to restrain sympathetic outflow and facilitate parasympathetic outflow. In chronic heart failure, these functional effects of NO are impaired or downregulated and contribute to the state of sympathetic overactivation and parasympathetic deactivation characterized by the disease. The cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating NO production and signaling in the autonomic nervous system in the normal and chronic heart failure state are summarized and discussed in light of their therapeutic implications. This review also emphasizes questions of regulation of NO function in the autonomic nervous system that remain unresolved.

Endothelial NOS expression within the ventrolateral medulla can affect cardiovascular function during static exercise in stroked rats

Temporary occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) causing damage to brain tissue occurs in the majority of human stroke victims. Reflex cardiovascular responses during static exercise were attenuated following transient MCA occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion, mediated via alteration of the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) protein isoform within the rostral (RVLM) and caudal (CVLM) ventrolateral medulla (Ally, A., Nauli, S.M., Maher, T.J. 2005. Molecular changes in nNOS protein expression within the ventrolateral medulla following transient focal ischemia affect cardiovascular functions. Brain Res. [1055, 73-82]. We hypothesized that the endothelial NOS (eNOS) isoform within the RVLM and CVLM might also play a role in integrating cardiovascular function. Thus, we compared cardiovascular responses to static muscle contraction and eNOS expression within the four quadrants, i.e., left and right sides of both RVLM and CVLM in sham operated rats and in rats with a temporary 90-minute one-sided MCAO followed by 24 hour reperfusion. Increases in arterial pressure during a muscle contraction were attenuated in MCAO rats when compared to sham rats. Left-sided MCAO significantly decreased the expression of eNOS in the ipsilateral side but not contralateral RVLM, and to both RVLM quadrants in sham-operated rats. In contrast, compared to sham rats and the right CVLM quadrant of MCAO rats, eNOS expression was significantly increased in the left ipsilateral CVLM quadrant in left-sided MCAO rats. These data suggest that attenuation of cardiovascular responses during muscle contraction in MCAO rats may be partly due to a reduction in eNOS expression within the ipsilateral RVLM and an overexpression of eNOS within the ipsilateral CVLM. Results demonstrate that the eNOS protein within the medulla may play a significant role in mediating cardiovascular responses during static exercise in pathophysiological conditions, such as stroke.

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase (nNOS) blockade within the ventrolateral medulla differentially modulates cardiovascular responses and nNOS expression during static skeletal muscle contraction

Nitric oxide (NO) is synthesized from L-arginine through the activity of the enzyme, NO synthase (NOS). Previous studies have demonstrated the role of the 3 isoforms of NOS, namely endothelial NOS (eNOS), neuronal NOS (nNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS) in cardiovascular regulation. Local blockade of nNOS in RVLM vs. CVLM differentially alters local glutamate and GABA release, and thereby results in opposite cardiovascular responses to static muscle contraction (Brain Res. 2003, 977, 80-89). In this study, we examined whether nNOS antagonism within the RVLM and CVLM affected cardiovascular responses during the exercise pressor reflex and simultaneously modulated medullary nNOS protein expression using anesthetized rats. Bilateral microdialysis of a selective nNOS antagonist, 1-(2-trifluoromethylphenyl)-imidazole (TRIM, 1.0 microM) for 120 min into the RVLM, potentiated cardiovascular responses during a static muscle contraction. Western blot analysis of nNOS expression within the RVLM showed significant attenuation of the protein when compared to the data obtained from control animals microdialyzed with vehicle. In contrast, bilateral application of TRIM into the CVLM attenuated cardiovascular responses during muscle contractions and increased nNOS protein expression within the CVLM. These results demonstrated that nNOS protein expression within the brainstem was pharmacologically altered by nNOS blockade within the RVLM or CVLM, which in turn might have contributed to the augmentation or attenuation of cardiovascular responses, respectively, during static exercise.

Regional expression of NO synthase, NAD(P)H oxidase and superoxide dismutase in the rat brain

Nitric oxide (NO) derived from the endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) contributes to regulation of cerebral circulation, whereas that produced by neuronal NOS (nNOS) participates in the regulation of brain function. In particular, NO plays an important role in modulation of sympathetic activity and hence central regulation of arterial pressure. Superoxide derived from NAD(P)H oxidase avidly reacts with and inactivates NO and, thereby, modulates its bioavailability. Calmodulin (CM) is required for activation of NOS and soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) serves as a NO receptor. Superoxide is dismutated to H2O2 by superoxide dismutase (SOD) and H2O2 is converted to H2O by catalase or glutathione peroxidase (GPX). Given the importance of NO in the regulation of brain perfusion and function, we undertook the present study to determine the relative expressions of immunodetectable nNOS, eNOS, CM, sGC, NAD(P)H oxidase and SOD by Western analysis in different regions of the normal rat brain. nNOS was abundantly expressed in the pons cerebellum and hypothalamus and less so in the cortex and medulla. sGC abundance was highest in the hypothalamus and pons, and lowest in the cerebellum and medulla. eNOS and calmodulin were equally abundant in all regions. NAD(P)H oxide was most abundant in the pons compared to other regions. Cytoplasmic SOD was equally distributed among different regions but catalase and GPX were more abundant in pons, hypothalamus and medulla and less so in the cortex and cerebellum. Thus, the study documented regional distributions of NOS, NAD(P)H oxidase, antioxidant enzymes, sGC and calmodulin which collectively regulate production and biological activities of NO and superoxide, the two important small molecular size signaling molecules.

Cardiovascular responses and neurotransmitter changes during static muscle contraction following blockade of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) within the ventrolateral medulla

The enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) which is necessary for the production of nitric oxide from L-arginine exists in three isoforms: neuronal NOS (nNOS), endothelial NOS (eNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS). Our previous studies have demonstrated the roles of nNOS and eNOS within the rostral (RVLM) and caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM) in modulating cardiovascular responses during static skeletal muscle contraction via altering localized glutamate and GABA levels (Brain Res. 977 (2003) 80-89; Neuroscience Res. 52 (2005) 21-30). In this study, we investigated the role of iNOS within the RVLM and CVLM on cardiovascular responses and glutamatergic/GABAergic neurotransmission during the exercise pressor reflex. Bilateral microdialysis of a selective iNOS antagonist, aminoguanidine (AGN; 1.0 microM), for 60 min into the RVLM attenuated increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), and extracellular glutamate levels during a static muscle contraction. Levels of GABA within the RVLM were increased. After 120 min of discontinuation of the drug, MAP and HR responses and glutamate/GABA concentrations recovered to baseline values during a subsequent muscle contraction. In contrast, bilateral application of AGN (1.0 microM) into CVLM potentiated cardiovascular responses and glutamate concentration while attenuating levels of GABA during a static muscle contraction. All values recovered after 120 min of discontinuation of the drug. These results demonstrate that iNOS within the ventrolateral medulla plays an important role in modulating cardiovascular responses and glutamatergic/GABAergic neurotransmission that regulates the exercise pressor reflex.

The mammalian exercise pressor reflex in health and disease

The exercise pressor reflex (a peripheral neural reflex originating in skeletal muscle) contributes significantly to the regulation of the cardiovascular system during exercise. Exercise-induced signals that comprise the afferent arm of the reflex are generated by activation of mechanically (muscle mechanoreflex) and chemically sensitive (muscle metaboreflex) skeletal muscle receptors. Activation of these receptors and their associated afferent fibres reflexively adjusts sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve activity during exercise. In heart failure, the cardiovascular response to exercise is augmented. Owing to the peripheral skeletal myopathy that develops in heart failure (e.g. muscle atrophy, decreased peripheral blood flow, fibre-type transformation and reduced oxidative capacity), the exercise pressor reflex has been implicated as a possible mechanism by which the cardiovascular response to physical activity is exaggerated in this disease. Accumulating evidence supports this conclusion. This review therefore focuses on the role of the exercise pressor reflex in regulating the cardiovascular system during exercise in both health and disease. Updates on our current understanding of the exercise pressor reflex neural pathway as well as experimental models used to study this reflex are presented. In addition, special emphasis is placed on the changes in exercise pressor reflex activity that develop in heart failure, including the contributions of the muscle mechanoreflex and metaboreflex to this pressor reflex dysfunction.

Molecular changes in nNOS protein expression within the ventrolateral medulla following transient focal ischemia affect cardiovascular functions

The majority of human strokes involve an occlusion of the middle cerebral artery and subsequent damage to the brain tissues it perfuses. We have previously reported that reflex cardiovascular changes during a static muscle contraction are attenuated following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion [A. Ally, S.M. Nauli, T.J. Maher, Cardiovascular responses and neurotransmission in the ventrolateral medulla during skeletal muscle contraction following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion, Brain Res. 952 (2002) 176-187]. We hypothesized that the attenuation is a result of altered expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) within the rostral (RVLM) and caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM). In this study, we have compared cardiovascular responses and nNOS protein expression within the four quadrants, i.e., left and right sides of both RVLM and CVLM in sham-operated rats (n = 10) and in rats with a temporary 90-min left-sided MCAO followed by 24 h reperfusion (n = 10). Increases in mean arterial pressure during a static muscle contraction were significantly attenuated in MCAO rats when compared to sham rats. The transient ischemia reduced nNOS expression within the ipsilateral RVLM quadrant compared to the contralateral RVLM or RVLM quadrants of control rats. In contrast, compared to sham rats and the right CVLM quadrant of MCAO rats, nNOS expression was significantly augmented in the ipsilateral CVLM in left-sided MCAO rats. These data suggest that the attenuation of cardiovascular responses during static muscle contraction in MCAO rats is partly due to a reduction in nNOS expression within the ipsilateral RVLM and an overexpression of nNOS abundance within the ipsilateral CVLM. Results demonstrate that nNOS expression within the medulla plays a significant role in mediating cardiovascular responses during static exercise in intact and pathophysiological conditions.

Selective Sensitization by Nitric Oxide of Sympathetic Baroreflex in Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla of Conscious Rabbits

Nitric oxide (NO) deficiency in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) has been implicated in impaired baroreflex control in hypertensive and heart failure animals. However, the role of local NO in normal baroreflex regulation remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the role of NO in tonic and baroreflex control of blood pressure (BP) in the RVLM of conscious rabbits. Microinjections of NO donors, S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine and sodium nitroprusside (5 to 20 nmol), or NO itself (20 to 200 pmol) into the RVLM dose-dependently increased BP. Bilateral microinjections of an NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 10 nmol), its inactive enantiomer D-NAME, or soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) inhibitors, 1-H-[1,2,4]oxadiaolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, 250 pmol) and methylene blue (10 nmol), into the RVLM did not affect resting BP, heart rate, or renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). However, L-NAME, methylene blue, and ODQ decreased RSNA baroreflex gain by 42% to 55%, whereas D-NAME did not affect this reflex. Co-microinjections of L-NAME and superoxide scavenger tempol (20 nmol) decreased RSNA baroreflex gain by 37+/-8%. Microinjections of a neuronal NOS (nNOS) inhibitor, 7-nitroindazole (500 pmol), into the RVLM decreased RSNA baroreflex gain by 42+/-12%, without altering resting BP, heart rate, or RSNA. Local administration of inducible NOS (iNOS) inhibitors, S-methylisothiourea (0.25 nmol) and aminoguanidine (0.25 and 2.5 nmol), affected neither resting nor baroreflex parameters. These results suggest that nNOS-derived NO facilitates sympathetic baroreflex transmission in the RVLM at least in part via a sGC-dependent, superoxide-independent mechanism. However, local nNOS and iNOS play little role in the tonic support of BP in conscious rabbits.

Neurochemistry within ventrolateral medulla and cardiovascular effects during static exercise following eNOS antagonism

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS), necessary for the production of nitric oxide from l-arginine, exists in three isoforms: neuronal NOS (nNOS), endothelial NOS (eNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS). We have previously demonstrated that blockade of nNOS within the rostral (RVLM) and caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM) differentially modulated cardiovascular responses to static exercise [Ishide, T., Nauli, S.M., Maher, T.J., Ally, A., 2003. Cardiovascular responses and neurotransmitter changes following blockade of nNOS within the ventrolateral medulla during static muscle contraction. Brain Res. 977, 80-89]. In this study, we have examined the effects of bilaterally microdialyzing a specific eNOS antagonist into the RVLM and CVLM on cardiovascular responses and glutamatergic/GABAergic neurotransmission during the exercise pressor reflex in anesthetized rats. Bilateral microdialysis of a selective eNOS antagonist, l-N(5)-(1-iminoethyl)ornithine (l-NIO; 10.0 microM) into the RVLM potentiated cardiovascular responses and increased extracellular fluid glutamate levels during a static muscle contraction. At the same time, levels of GABA within the RVLM were decreased. The cardiovascular responses and neurochemical changes to muscle contraction recovered after discontinuation of the drug. In contrast, bilateral application of the eNOS antagonist into the CVLM attenuated cardiovascular responses and glutamate concentrations during a static muscle contraction, but augmented levels of GABA. These results demonstrate that eNOS within the ventrolateral medulla plays an important role in modulating glutamate/GABAergic neurotransmission, that in turn regulates the exercise pressor reflex. The present study provides further evidence of simultaneous sympathoexcitatory and sympathoinhibitory effects of nitric oxide within the RVLM and CVLM involved in the neural control of circulation during static exercise.