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Rogenmoser L, Arnicane A, Jäncke L, Elmer S. The left dorsal stream causally mediates the tone labeling in absolute pitch. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2021; 1500:122-133. [PMID: 34046902 PMCID: PMC8518498 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) refers to the ability to effortlessly identify given pitches without any reference. Correlative evidence suggests that the left posterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is responsible for the process underlying pitch labeling in AP. Here, we measured the sight‐reading performance of right‐handed AP possessors and matched controls under cathodal and sham transcranial direct current stimulation of the left DLPFC. The participants were instructed to report notations as accurately and as fast as possible by playing with their right hand on a piano. The notations were simultaneously presented with distracting auditory stimuli that either matched or mismatched them in different semitone degrees. Unlike the controls, AP possessors revealed an interference effect in that they responded slower in mismatching conditions than in the matching one. Under cathodal stimulation, this interference effect disappeared. These findings confirm that the pitch‐labeling process underlying AP occurs automatically and is largely nonsuppressible when triggered by tone exposure. The improvement of the AP possessors’ sight‐reading performances in response to the suppression of the left DLPFC using cathodal stimulation confirms a causal relationship between this brain structure and pitch labeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Rogenmoser
- Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Andra Arnicane
- Auditory Research Group Zurich (ARGZ), Division of Neuropsychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lutz Jäncke
- Auditory Research Group Zurich (ARGZ), Division of Neuropsychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,University Research Priority Program (URPP), Dynamics of Healthy Aging, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Elmer
- Auditory Research Group Zurich (ARGZ), Division of Neuropsychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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2
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Usui K, Shinozaki J, Usui N, Terada K, Matsuda K, Kondo A, Tottori T, Nagamine T, Inoue Y. Retained absolute pitch after selective amygdalohippocampectomy. Epilepsy Behav Rep 2020; 14:100378. [PMID: 32984806 PMCID: PMC7494675 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebr.2020.100378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study assessed the pre-operative chronic condition and effect of epilepsy surgery in a 21-year-old Japanese woman with drug-resistant right temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). For this patient, it was crucially important to preserve language and her music capabilities, including absolute pitch (AP), which is found in the general population at less than 0.1%. The patient became seizure free, and her AP capability was preserved after selective amygdalohippocampectomy in the non-dominant right hemisphere. Most of the neuropsychological test (WAIS-III and WMS-R) scores remained in the normal range, except for low scores in verbal memory and markedly improved attention/concentration index. The patient's pre- and postoperative brain function related to language and music capabilities were investigated using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) based on two language tasks and a music task (listening to melodies). While task performance was similar in pre- and postoperative examinations, her brain activation patterns markedly differed. The most striking difference was during the music task: areas with significant activation existed in the bilateral frontal and temporal lobes before surgery, whereas postoperative activation was confined to a very limited region in the left angular gyrus. The authors speculate that the surgery triggered some change in functional organization in the brain, which contributed to preserving her capabilities. A music student with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) became seizure free. Postoperative evaluation exhibited almost stable AP ability and cognitive function. Brain activation patterns on fMRI showed a notable change after surgery. Surgery possibly triggered some change in functional organization of the brain. Change in functional organization possibly contributed to preserving the capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Usui
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Sapporo Medical University, S1W17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8556, Japan
- Corresponding author.
| | - Jun Shinozaki
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Sapporo Medical University, S1W17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8556, Japan
| | - Naotaka Usui
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Kiyohito Terada
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Kazumi Matsuda
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Akihiko Kondo
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Takayasu Tottori
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Takashi Nagamine
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Sapporo Medical University, S1W17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8556, Japan
| | - Yushi Inoue
- National Epilepsy Center, NHO Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, Urushiyama 886, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
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Kim SG, Knösche TR. On the Perceptual Subprocess of Absolute Pitch. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:557. [PMID: 29085275 PMCID: PMC5649255 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is the rare ability of musicians to identify the pitch of tonal sound without external reference. While there have been behavioral and neuroimaging studies on the characteristics of AP, how the AP is implemented in human brains remains largely unknown. AP can be viewed as comprising of two subprocesses: perceptual (processing auditory input to extract a pitch chroma) and associative (linking an auditory representation of pitch chroma with a verbal/non-verbal label). In this review, we focus on the nature of the perceptual subprocess of AP. Two different models on how the perceptual subprocess works have been proposed: either via absolute pitch categorization (APC) or based on absolute pitch memory (APM). A major distinction between the two views is that whether the AP uses unique auditory processing (i.e., APC) that exists only in musicians with AP or it is rooted in a common phenomenon (i.e., APM), only with heightened efficiency. We review relevant behavioral and neuroimaging evidence that supports each notion. Lastly, we list open questions and potential ideas to address them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Goo Kim
- Research Group for MEG and EEG-Cortical Networks and Cognitive Functions, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thomas R Knösche
- Research Group for MEG and EEG-Cortical Networks and Cognitive Functions, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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Kim SG, Knösche TR. Intracortical myelination in musicians with absolute pitch: Quantitative morphometry using 7-T MRI. Hum Brain Mapp 2016; 37:3486-501. [PMID: 27160707 PMCID: PMC5084814 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is known as the ability to recognize and label the pitch chroma of a given tone without external reference. Known brain structures and functions related to AP are mainly of macroscopic aspects. To shed light on the underlying neural mechanism of AP, we investigated the intracortical myeloarchitecture in musicians with and without AP using the quantitative mapping of the longitudinal relaxation rates with ultra‐high‐field magnetic resonance imaging at 7 T. We found greater intracortical myelination for AP musicians in the anterior region of the supratemporal plane, particularly the medial region of the right planum polare (PP). In the same region of the right PP, we also found a positive correlation with a behavioral index of AP performance. In addition, we found a positive correlation with a frequency discrimination threshold in the anterolateral Heschl's gyrus in the right hemisphere, demonstrating distinctive neural processes of absolute recognition and relative discrimination of pitch. Regarding possible effects of local myelination in the cortex and the known importance of the anterior superior temporal gyrus/sulcus for the identification of auditory objects, we argue that pitch chroma may be processed as an identifiable object property in AP musicians. Hum Brain Mapp 37:3486–3501, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Goo Kim
- Research Group for MEG and EEG-Cortical Networks and Cognitive Functions, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thomas R Knösche
- Research Group for MEG and EEG-Cortical Networks and Cognitive Functions, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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Suriadi MM, Usui K, Tottori T, Terada K, Fujitani S, Umeoka S, Usui N, Baba K, Matsuda K, Inoue Y. Preservation of absolute pitch after right amygdalohippocampectomy for a pianist with TLE. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 42:14-7. [PMID: 25499156 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 09/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) ability is a rare musical phenomenon. In the literature, it has been suggested that the relative specialization for pitch processing is in the right temporal lobe in the non-AP population. Since the anatomic basis for absolute pitch is not fully understood and cases of temporal lobe epilepsy of AP possessors are extremely rare, applicability of resection as a treatment of epilepsy in this particular area should be evaluated with caution. In the present study, we examined an AP possessor who suffered from medically refractory temporal lobe epilepsy and underwent right selective amygdalohippocampectomy (SAH). The SAH procedure clearly avoided disturbing important structures for AP, inasmuch as postsurgically she preserved her AP ability and was seizure-free. She did well post-operatively in the test of pure sine wave tones with short reaction time, which could be identified as "true" absolute pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meilia M Suriadi
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan.
| | - Keiko Usui
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Takayasu Tottori
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Kiyohito Terada
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Shigeru Fujitani
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Shuichi Umeoka
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Naotaka Usui
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Kouichi Baba
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Kazumi Matsuda
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
| | - Yushi Inoue
- National Epilepsy Center, Shizuoka Institute of Epilepsy and Neurological Disorders, 886 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8688, Japan
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Omigie D, Samson S. A Protective Effect of Musical Expertise on Cognitive Outcome Following Brain Damage? Neuropsychol Rev 2014; 24:445-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s11065-014-9274-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Wilson SJ, Abbott DF, Tailby C, Gentle EC, Merrett DL, Jackson GD. Changes in singing performance and fMRI activation following right temporal lobe surgery. Cortex 2013; 49:2512-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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8
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Wengenroth M, Blatow M, Heinecke A, Reinhardt J, Stippich C, Hofmann E, Schneider P. Increased Volume and Function of Right Auditory Cortex as a Marker for Absolute Pitch. Cereb Cortex 2013; 24:1127-37. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhs391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Omar R, Hailstone JC, Warren JE, Crutch SJ, Warren JD. The cognitive organization of music knowledge: a clinical analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 133:1200-13. [PMID: 20142334 PMCID: PMC2850578 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awp345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite much recent interest in the clinical neuroscience of music processing, the cognitive organization of music as a domain of non-verbal knowledge has been little studied. Here we addressed this issue systematically in two expert musicians with clinical diagnoses of semantic dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, in comparison with a control group of healthy expert musicians. In a series of neuropsychological experiments, we investigated associative knowledge of musical compositions (musical objects), musical emotions, musical instruments (musical sources) and music notation (musical symbols). These aspects of music knowledge were assessed in relation to musical perceptual abilities and extra-musical neuropsychological functions. The patient with semantic dementia showed relatively preserved recognition of musical compositions and musical symbols despite severely impaired recognition of musical emotions and musical instruments from sound. In contrast, the patient with Alzheimer’s disease showed impaired recognition of compositions, with somewhat better recognition of composer and musical era, and impaired comprehension of musical symbols, but normal recognition of musical emotions and musical instruments from sound. The findings suggest that music knowledge is fractionated, and superordinate musical knowledge is relatively more robust than knowledge of particular music. We propose that music constitutes a distinct domain of non-verbal knowledge but shares certain cognitive organizational features with other brain knowledge systems. Within the domain of music knowledge, dissociable cognitive mechanisms process knowledge derived from physical sources and the knowledge of abstract musical entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohani Omar
- Dementia Research Centre, Institute of Neurology, University College, and Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
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10
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Snyder A. Explaining and inducing savant skills: privileged access to lower level, less-processed information. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2009; 364:1399-405. [PMID: 19528023 PMCID: PMC2677578 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
I argue that savant skills are latent in us all. My hypothesis is that savants have privileged access to lower level, less-processed information, before it is packaged into holistic concepts and meaningful labels. Owing to a failure in top-down inhibition, they can tap into information that exists in all of our brains, but is normally beyond conscious awareness. This suggests why savant skills might arise spontaneously in otherwise normal people, and why such skills might be artificially induced by low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. It also suggests why autistic savants are atypically literal with a tendency to concentrate more on the parts than on the whole and why this offers advantages for particular classes of problem solving, such as those that necessitate breaking cognitive mindsets. A strategy of building from the parts to the whole could form the basis for the so-called autistic genius. Unlike the healthy mind, which has inbuilt expectations of the world (internal order), the autistic mind must simplify the world by adopting strict routines (external order).
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan Snyder
- Centre for the Mind, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
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11
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Deutscher A, Niessen HG, Angenstein F, Goldschmidt J, Scheich H, Schulze H. Comparison of estimates for volumes of brain ablations derived from structural MRI and classical histology. J Neurosci Methods 2006; 156:136-9. [PMID: 16554094 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2006] [Revised: 02/09/2006] [Accepted: 02/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Estimates of auditory cortex ablation sizes in a rodent model as derived from classical histology (volume reconstructions from Nissl-stained brain sections) and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (T1-weighted whole-brain scans from a 4.7 T animal scanner) were compared in the same specimens (Mongolian gerbils). Estimates of lesion volumes obtained with the two methods were very similar, robust, highly correlated and not significantly different from each other. Hence, the general usefulness of structural MRI for the determination of brain lesion size in small animal models is demonstrated. MRI therefore seems to be well suited to determine proper size and location of an experimental brain ablation prior to (potentially extensive) behavioral testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Deutscher
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Auditory Learning & Speech, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
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12
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Abstract
This review article highlights state-of-the-art functional neuroimaging studies and demonstrates the novel use of music as a tool for the study of human auditory brain structure and function. Music is a unique auditory stimulus with properties that make it a compelling tool with which to study both human behavior and, more specifically, the neural elements involved in the processing of sound. Functional neuroimaging techniques represent a modern and powerful method of investigation into neural structure and functional correlates in the living organism. These methods have demonstrated a close relationship between the neural processing of music and language, both syntactically and semantically. Greater neural activity and increased volume of gray matter in Heschl's gyrus has been associated with musical aptitude. Activation of Broca's area, a region traditionally considered to subserve language, is important in interpreting whether a note is on or off key. The planum temporale shows asymmetries that are associated with the phenomenon of perfect pitch. Functional imaging studies have also demonstrated activation of primitive emotional centers such as ventral striatum, midbrain, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral medial prefrontal cortex in listeners of moving musical passages. In addition, studies of melody and rhythm perception have elucidated mechanisms of hemispheric specialization. These studies show the power of music and functional neuroimaging to provide singularly useful tools for the study of brain structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Limb
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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Terao Y, Mizuno T, Shindoh M, Sakurai Y, Ugawa Y, Kobayashi S, Nagai C, Furubayashi T, Arai N, Okabe S, Mochizuki H, Hanajima R, Tsuji S. Vocal amusia in a professional tango singer due to a right superior temporal cortex infarction. Neuropsychologia 2005; 44:479-88. [PMID: 15982678 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2004] [Revised: 05/14/2005] [Accepted: 05/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We describe the psychophysical features of vocal amusia in a professional tango singer caused by an infarction mainly involving the superior temporal cortex of the right hemisphere. The lesion also extended to the supramarginal gyrus, the posterior aspect of the postcentral gyrus and the posterior insula. She presented with impairment of musical perception that was especially pronounced in discriminating timbre and loudness but also in discriminating pitch, and a severely impaired ability to reproduce the pitch just presented. In contrast, language and motor disturbances were almost entirely absent. By comparing her pre- and post-stroke singing, we were able to show that her singing after the stroke lacked the fine control of the subtle stress and pitch changes that characterized her pre-stroke singing. Such impairment could not be explained by the impairment of pitch perception. The findings suggest that damage to the right temporoparietal cortex is enough to produce both perceptive and expressive deficits in music.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuo Terao
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan.
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Warren
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
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15
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Zatorre RJ, Perry DW, Beckett CA, Westbury CF, Evans AC. Functional anatomy of musical processing in listeners with absolute pitch and relative pitch. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95:3172-7. [PMID: 9501235 PMCID: PMC19714 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.6.3172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We used both structural and functional brain imaging techniques to investigate the neural basis of absolute pitch (AP), a specialized skill present in some musicians. By using positron emission tomography, we measured cerebral blood flow during the presentation of musical tones to AP possessors and to control musicians without AP. Listening to musical tones resulted in similar patterns of increased cerebral blood flow in auditory cortical areas in both groups, as expected. The AP group also demonstrated activation of the left posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex, an area thought to be related to learning conditional associations. However, a similar pattern of left dorsolateral frontal activity was also observed in non-AP subjects when they made relative pitch judgments of intervals, such as minor or major. Conversely, activity within the right inferior frontal cortex was observed in control but not in AP subjects during the interval-judgment task, suggesting that AP possessors need not access working memory mechanisms in this task. MRI measures of cortical volume indicated a larger left planum temporale in the AP group, which correlated with performance on an pitch-naming task. Our findings suggest that AP may not be associated with a unique pattern of cerebral activity but rather may depend on the recruitment of a specialized network involved in the retrieval and manipulation of verbal-tonal associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Zatorre
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2B4.
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