Free sex steroid and sex hormone-binding globulin levels in oligozoospermic men with varicoceles**Presented in part at the Conjoint Meeting of The American Fertility Society and the Canadian Fertility and Andrology Society, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, October 11 to 14, 1993.††Supported in part by the Physicians of Ontario through the Physicians Services Incorporated Foundation, North York, Ontario, Canada, and by Connaught Novo Nordisk, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Varicocele: An Endocrinological Perspective

Varicocele affects 15% of male population but it is more frequently identified in patients searching medical care for infertility. The impact of varicocele on semen production and fertility is known, but the relationship between clinical varicocele and impaired hormonal production is not clear. In published literature there are some studies regarding hormonal alterations in patients with varicocele but no review in which all the hormonal findings are explained. The aim of this review is to evaluate, by most common search engine, what is known about hormonal alterations in varicocele-bearing patients, to verify if a cause-effect relationship is documented and to give a useful contribution to in clinical management of this kind of patients. We found contradictory results about hormonal status from literature. Some studies confirmed a decrease of testosterone levels and higher FSH and LH levels that normalize after varicocelectomy, others found lower than normal levels of dihydrotestosterone due to decreased activity of epididymal 5-α-reductase. Lower circulating Anti-Müllerian Hormone levels, accompanied by a decreased Inhibin-B level, were reported as indicators of the decreased Sertoli cells function in varicocele-bearing adult patients. The finding of higher basal 17-OH-progesterone concentrations in patients with varicocele was explained by some authors with a testicular C-17,20-lyase deficiency. There is no doubt that varicocele could led to hormonal alterations. This review proposes that the impaired free sexual steroid levels are the result of a slight, deep-rooted defect in the testes of a certain amount of men with varicocele but further multicentre, randomized controlled studies remain mandatory to better clarify the hormonal features of patients with varicocele and to assess the utility of hormonal evaluation for establishing the duration of varicocele and for better identifying patients who need surgical correction.

COVID-19 and varicocele: the possible overlap factors and the common therapeutic approaches

Varicocele is recognized as one of the main attributable causes of male infertility which can affect spermatogenesis by various pathophysiological mechanisms. Recent studies have identified oxidative stress and reduction in antioxidant, hyperthermia, hypoxia, hormonal dysfunction, and inflammatory conditions as major factors in the pathophysiology of varicocele, all of which have known direct associations with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and can significantly increase the risk of detrimental COVID-19-related outcomes. Emerging data have shown an association between COVID-19 and inflammation, overproduction of cytokine, and other pathophysiological processes. The present review, summarizes the current understanding of the pathophysiology of varicocele and investigates the potential correlation between the severity of COVID-19 and the varicocele disease. In addition, various possible treatments which can be effective in both diseases were examined. Despite numerous challenges associated with the prevalence of COVID-19 in healthcare systems in infected countries, special attention should be given to maintaining a high level of care for complex patients with a pre-existing disease such as varicocele and providing appropriate practical advice for optimal control of the COVID-19 disease. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Perspectives in Pediatric Pathology, Chapter 20. Adolescent Varicocele

Varicocele is characterized by elongation, dilatation, and tortuosity of the veins draining the testis and its covers, causing circulatory reflux along the inner spermatic vein [ 1 ]. Varicocele results in progressive testicular lesions and, if untreated, can lead to testicular atrophy [ 2 ]. Varicocele is considered the most frequently identified cause of male infertility [ 3 ]. The mechanisms involved in varicocele formation are not well known and probably are multiple, differing from one patient to another.

VARICOCELE LIGATION ON FREE TESTOSTERONE LEVELS IN INFERTILE MEN WITH VARICOCELE

We have analyzed the effects of varicocele ligation on free testosterone levels, and investigated the interrelationships between free testosterone and fertility. The records were retrospectively evaluated for 42 infertile patients who underwent varicocele ligation, with serum free testosterone levels, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), lutenizing hormone (LH), testosterone, estradiol, prolactin, ejaculated volume, sperm concentration and motility before and after surgery. Serum free testosterone levels increased from 12.97+/-4.16 to 13.59+/-3.93 pg/mL, but the difference was insignificant. The differences before and after surgery of patients in sperm concentration and motility were also insignificant. However, in free testosterone increasing group, the sperm concentration and motility increased significantly, from 4.05+/-4.35 to 7.90+/-8.19 million/mL (P=0.01) and from 30.64+/-21.87% to 41.00+/-22.00%, respectively (P=0.03). The increase in serum free testosterone level by varicocele ligation results in a significant improvement in sperm concentration and motility.

Varicocèle et infertilité masculine : Recommandations Comité Andrologie - AFU 2006

The routine assessment of an infertile man with varicocele must comprise complete clinical interview including the patient's medical and reproductive history, physical examination and at least two sperm counts. Imaging examinations are not indicated to characterize the varicocele, except when physical examination is inconclusive. However; scrotal ultrasound can be useful in infertile men to detect concomitant diseases, especially testicular tumours. Treatment of varicocele must be proposed when all of the following conditions are present: 1) the varicocele is palpable; 2) the couple's infertility is documented; 3) there is no female infertility problem or this problem is potentially curable; 4) there is at least one abnormality of spermatic parameters on the sperm count. Treatment can also be proposed in men with palpable varicocele and spermatic abnormalities on the sperm count, even when they do not have any immediate plans to have a child. Young men with varicocele and a normal sperm count must be followed by sperm counts every one or two years. Treatment of varicocele must also be proposed to adolescents with varicocele and ipsilateral a reduction of testicular volume. Adolescents with varicocele associated with a normal-sized testis must be reviewed annually to measure testicular volume and/or sperm count when it can be performed. Surgery or percutaneous embolization are two possible treatment options for varicocele provided they are performed by a well trained and experienced operator. The treatment of varicocele can be considered to be first-line treatment in a patient with moderate oligo-astheno-teratospermia with no associated female infertility factor. IVF with or without ICSI can be considered to be first-line treatment in the presence of an independent female infertility factor requiring the use of these techniques. Concomitant treatment of varicocele can be considered to improve semen fertility. Persistence or relapse of varicocele can be treated by surgery or percutaneous embolization provided spermatic venography is performed to identify the site of persistent venous reflux. After treatment of varicocele, a sperm count must be performed approximately every three months for one year or until pregnancy is achieved.

Baseline follicle-stimulating hormone is a strong predictor for the outcome of the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone test in young men with unilateral medium- or high-grade varicocele

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) test is an adequate diagnostic tool to identify testicular dysfunction in men with strictly unilateral varicocele and defined testicular volume; and to identify any peripheral venous variable which would predict the result of the GnRH test.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In all, 102 GnRH tests were done in men with a left-sided varicocele. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were determined. After intravenous administration of 100 microg GnRH, stimulated LH and FSH levels were measured. FSH levels of >8.2 U/L and LH levels of >51.7 U/L were considered exaggerated.

RESULTS

In all, 50 men had an exaggerated GnRH test result; all had an exaggerated FSH response and six also had an elevated LH response. The baseline FSH levels were higher (P < 0.001) and the testicular volume was smaller (P < 0.01) in men with an exaggerated GnRH test response. All men with a baseline FSH level of >5.6 U/L had an exaggerated GnRH test response.

CONCLUSION

A baseline FSH level of >5.6 U/L is a good predictor of the GnRH test outcome. Leydig cell function seems mainly undisturbed.

Increased serum inhibin B levels after varicocele treatment

OBJECTIVE

Inhibin B is secreted by Sertoli cells in response to FSH and is the major feedback regulator of FSH secretion in man. The serum inhibin B level has emerged as a good marker of spermatogenesis and Sertoli cell function. Varicocele has been associated with infertility and disturbed spermatogenesis. We have studied the effect of varicocele treatment on serum inhibin B levels, with the aim of investigating the effect on spermatogenesis and the involvement of the Sertoli cell in varicocele pathophysiology.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

In a pre-post test design, the effect of varicocele surgery on inhibin B levels was studied in 30 infertile men.

MEASUREMENTS

Endocrinology (inhibin B, FSH, LH, SHBG and testosterone) and semen analysis (sperm concentration, motility and morphology).

RESULTS

In men receiving varicocele treatment, a significant increase in serum inhibin B levels was observed from 133.9 +/- 13.4 pretreatment to 167.8 +/- 16.1 ng/l after treatment (mean +/- SEM, P < 0.0001). No significant changes were observed in serum levels of FSH, LH and testosterone. The serum SHBG level decreased from 32.9 +/- 3.5 to 28.6 +/- 3.4 nmol/l (mean +/- SEM, P = 0.04) and the free androgen index was significantly increased from 66 +/- 5.9 pretreatment to 85 +/- 6.8 after treatment (P = 0.02, mean +/- SEM). Semen analysis showed a significant improvement in sperm concentration, from 6.5 +/- 1.9 pretreatment to 19.3 +/- 4.9 x 106/ml after treatment (P = 0.003, mean +/- SEM), and in sperm motility from the baseline level of 17 +/- 3 to 32 +/- 4% after treatment (P = 0.001, mean +/- SEM).

CONCLUSIONS

Varicocele treatment can increase serum inhibin B levels, indicating improvement of spermatogenesis and Sertoli cell function. This finding suggests that the pathophysiology of varicocele involves impairment of Sertoli cell function or a different distribution of germ cell stages.

Pituitary and testicular function in adolescents with varicocele

The LH and FSH responses post GnRH, and the sex steroid hormone responses post hCG stimulation were evaluated in a group of 41 adolescents (mean age 15.09 +/- 2.27) with unilateral varicocele to study the relation between the pituitary gonadotropin and sex steroid hormone responses to the patients' age and pubertal stages. Twenty-two normal boys (mean age 14.90 +/- 1.97) also were studied. In both groups a GnRH stimulation test was performed. Besides this, an hCG test was performed in 7 patients and 7 controls. No significative differences in the LH and FSH responses to the GnRH stimulus were observed in 14 patients at Tanners' pubertal stages 3 to 4 compared to the controls. Twelve (44.44%) patients at Tanners' pubertal stage 5 presented an excessive LH response at 30 and 60 min after GnRH stimulation compared to 12 age- and pubertal stage-matched controls (p < .001 and p < .05, respectively). They also presented an excessive FSH response at 30 min (p < .05) post-GnRH stimulation. Correlation analysis in these 12 patients revealed a tendency toward a positive association between the patients' age and the LH response post-GnRH stimulation. In this group of adolescents with varicocele the gonadotropin response to the GnRH stimulus was influenced by the patients' age and by their pubertal stage of development independently of the venous dilatation.

Male fertility disorders

Effective treatments for extreme oligozoospermia include in vitro fertilization, recovery of sperm through epididymal sperm aspiration or testicular sperm aspiration, and direct injection of sperm through intracytoplasmic sperm injection. The clinical evaluation of and treatment options for male patients with fertility disorders are detailed in this article.

Evaluation of the relationship between semen parameters, pregnancy rate of wives of infertile men with varicocele, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone test before and after varicocelectomy

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) test can serve as an indicator for the need and timing of surgery in infertile men with varicocele.

METHODS

The GnRH test was performed in 121 infertile men with varicocele before surgical correction and 4 to 6, 9 to 12, and 16 to 18 months after. Levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were evaluated immediately before the test and 45 minutes after intravenous injection of 100 jig Relisorm L (a synthetic GnRH analogue). Eighteen fertile men with normal semen parameters served as control patients for defining the preoperative hormone levels. A more than twofold increase in FSH and a more than fivefold increase in LH was considered a positive result. Findings were correlated with semen parameters and rate of pregnancy in the patients' wives at 18 months postoperatively.

RESULTS

Of the 121 patients, 89 (73.5%) had a positive GnRH test result, and 32 had a negative result. Semen parameters were improved postoperatively in 72 of the GnRH-positive patients (80.9%) and in only 6 of the GnRH-negative patients (1 8.7%). Corresponding pregnancy rates at 18 months in the two subgroups were 60 (67.4%) and 3 (9.3%), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

A positive preoperative GnRH test is a good predictor of improvement in semen parameters and pregnancy after varicocele surgery. We suggest that the GnRH test can serve as an additional indicator for varicocelectomy.