Characterization of cDNA and genomic sequences encoding a chicken phospholamban

DNA sequence and haplotype variation in two candidate genes for dilated cardiomyopathy in the turkey Meleagris gallopavo

Determining variation in genes is fundamental to understanding their function in the disease state. Cardiac troponin T (cTnT) and phospholamban (PLN) genes have been implicated in dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in human and model species. To investigate the role of these 2 candidate genes in DCM in the turkey Meleagris gallopavo, understanding sequence variants and map position distribution is necessary. To this end, a total of 1854 and 1771 bp of cTnT and PLN gene sequences, respectively, were scanned for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a randomly bred population. A total of 15 SNPs was identified in the cTnT and PLN genomic sequences. Nine haplotypes, 5 in cTnT and 4 in PLN, were identified. Observed heterozygosities (0.02–0.39) in the turkey population were low for both genes. Within each gene, 1 SNP corresponding to a restriction enzyme site was identified and used to develop a PCR–restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) genotyping assay. The PLN gene was genetically mapped to turkey chromosome 2, equivalent to Gallus gallus chromosome 3, and cTnT mapped to a turkey microchromosome. Although limited because of the relatively small sample size of 55 birds, the data from this SNP analysis of PLN and cTnT provide a foundation from which to evaluate the function of cTnT and PLN in the turkey. Information about the distribution of the SNPs and haplotypes will facilitate future association and linkage studies.

Candidate gene expression analysis of toxin-induced dilated cardiomyopathy in the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), a heart disease, affects many vertebrates including humans and poultry. The disease can be either idiopathic (IDCM) or toxin-induced (TIDCM). Although genetic and other studies of IDCM are extensive, the specific etiology of TIDCM is still unknown. In this study, we compared mRNA levels of cardiac troponin T (cTnT) and phospholamban (PLN) in turkeys affected and unaffected by TIDCM. Cardiac TnT and PLN were chosen because their altered expression has been observed in IDCM-affected birds. A total of 72 birds, 44 affected and 28 unaffected with TIDCM, were used. Differences in the mRNA levels of cTnT and PLN between affected and unaffected turkeys were significant only for cTnT. The sequence of the turkey PLN showed significant similarity at the nucleotide level to the reference chicken sequence and to those of other species. In addition to implicating cTnT in TIDCM, the present work describes a partial turkey PLN coding sequence that could be useful for future studies.

Signaling pathways regulating murine cardiac CREB phosphorylation

Using the mouse Langendorff heart perfusion model, the signaling pathways that regulate cardiac CREB-S133 phosphorylation have been defined. In mouse hearts stimulated with isoproterenol (ISO) (10(-8) M), endothelin-1 (ET-1) (10(-8) M), and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (TPA) (10(-7) M), CREB-S133 phosphorylation was attained only by TPA-treatment. Activation of protein kinase A (PKA) was achieved by ISO. ISO- and ET-1-stimulation activated Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII). Protein kinase C (PKC) and p90(RSK) were activated with all three stimuli. Inhibition of ERK1/2 with PD98059 (10(-5) M) completely inhibited the activation of p90(RSK), but did not block CREB-S133 phosphorylation in TPA-perfused heart, indicating that PKA, CaMKII, and p90(RSK) do not phosphorylate CREB-S133 in the murine heart. PKC activation is signal specific. Analyses of PKC isoforms suggest that CREB phosphorylation is mediated by PKC epsilon translocating into nucleus only with TPA stimulation. These results, unlike those reported in other tissues, demonstrate that cardiac CREB is not a multi-signal target.

Adenylyl cyclase type VI gene transfer reduces phospholamban expression in cardiac myocytes via activating transcription factor 3

Cardiac-directed expression of adenylyl cyclase type VI (AC(VI)) increases stimulated cAMP production, improves heart function, and increases survival in cardiomyopathy. In contrast, pharmacological agents that increase intracellular levels of cAMP have detrimental effects on cardiac function and survival. We wondered whether effects that are independent of cAMP might be responsible for these salutary outcomes associated with AC(VI) expression. We therefore conducted a series of experiments focused on how gene transcription is influenced by AC(VI) in cultured neonatal rat cardiac myocytes, with a particular focus on genes that might influence cardiac function. We found that overexpression of AC(VI) down-regulated mRNA and protein expression of phospholamban, an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase. We determined that the cAMP-responsive-like element in the phospholamban (PLB) promoter was critical for down-regulation by AC(VI). Overexpression of AC(VI) did not alter the expression of CREB, CREM, ATF1, ATF2, or ATF4 proteins. In contrast, overexpression of AC(VI) increased expression of ATF3 protein, a suppressor of transcription. Following AC(VI) gene transfer, when cardiac myocytes were stimulated with isoproterenol or NKH477, a water-soluble forskolin analog that directly stimulates AC, expression of ATF3 protein was increased even more, which correlated with reduced expression of PLB. We then showed that AC(VI)-induced ATF3 protein binds to the cAMP-responsive-like element on the PLB promoter and that overexpression of ATF3 in cardiac myocytes inhibits PLB promoter activity. These findings indicate that AC(VI) has effects on gene transcription that are not directly dependent on cAMP generation.

Protein kinase C modulation of the regulation of sarcoplasmic reticular function by protein kinase A-mediated phospholamban phosphorylation in diabetic rats

1. The goal of this study was to elucidate the possible mechanisms by which protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated regulation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via phospholambin protein phosphorylation is functionally impaired in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. 2. Phospholamban (PLB) protein and mRNA levels were 1.3-fold higher in diabetic than in control hearts, while protein expression of cardiac SR Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA2a) was unchanged. 3. Basal and isoprenaline-stimulated phosphorylation of PLB at Ser(16) or Thr(17) was unchanged in diabetic hearts. However, stronger immunoreactivity was observed at the basal level in diabetic hearts when antiphosphoserine antibody was used. 4. Basal (32)P incorporation into PLB was significantly higher in diabetic than in control SR vesicles, but the extent of the PKA-mediated increase in PLB phosphorylation was the same in the two groups of vesicles. 5. Stimulation of Ca(2+) uptake by PKA-catalyzed PLB phosphorylation was weaker in diabetic than in control SR vesicles. The PKA-induced increase in Ca(2+) uptake was attenuated when control SR vesicles were preincubated with protein kinase C (PKC). 6. PKC activities were increased by more than two-fold in the membranous fractions from diabetic hearts in comparison with control values, regardless of whether Ca(2+) was present. This was associated with increases in the protein content of PKCdelta, PKCeta, PKCiota, and PKClambda in diabetic membranous fractions. 7. The changes observed in diabetic rats were reversed by insulin therapy. 8. These results suggest that PKA-dependent phosphorylation may incompletely counteract the function of PLB as an inhibitor of SERCA2a activity in diabetes in which PKC expression and activity are enhanced.

Cardiac memory is associated with decreased levels of the transcriptional factor CREB modulated by angiotensin II and calcium

Cardiac memory (CM) has short- (STCM) and long-term (LTCM) components modulated by calcium and angiotensin II. LTCM is associated with reduced Ito and Kv4.3 mRNA levels. Because the cAMP response element binding protein, CREB, contributes to CNS memory transcription, we hypothesized that it might be a transcriptional factor in CM, influenced by calcium and angiotensin II. We studied STCM in dogs that were AV sequentially paced (AVP) for 2 hours or sham-operated. STCM was evaluated with ECG and vectorcardiogram (VCG), and subepicardial biopsies were taken at 5 to 120 minutes and investigated for CREB. LTCM was studied in dogs paced for 3 weeks and in sham controls. At 3 weeks the heart was excised, biopsies obtained, and CRE binding tested. STCM induction occurred in AVP dogs but not in sham or AVP dogs treated with saralasin or nifedipine. Nuclear CREB was significantly decreased at 2 hours in the AVP no-drug group only. LTCM dogs manifested reduced binding of nuclear proteins to CRE, and CRE binding activity in the promoter region of Kv4.3. In conclusion, there is an association between STCM induction and decreased nuclear CREB that is angiotensin-modulated and calcium-dependent. Moreover, the decreased CRE binding after 3 weeks of AVP combined with CRE binding activity in the Kv4.3 promoter can explain the Kv4.3 mRNA and Ito downregulation that characterize LTCM.

Endothelin-1 responsiveness of a 1.4 kb phospholamban promoter fragment in rat cardiomyocytes transfected by the gene gun

The transcriptional regulation of an isolated rat phospholamban (PL) promoter fragment in rat cardiomyocytes was analyzed by applying a new method to reach substantially higher transfection efficiencies: gene gun biolistics. The gene gun transfection method was optimized for application to primary cultures of rat neonatal cardiomyocytes. Cells, cultured at different densities (0.75-1.50x10(5)cells/cm(2)) in serum-free medium, were transfected with DNA coated gold particles. A transfection efficiency of up to 10% could be achieved (compared to <1% with other methods) by the gene gun as checked using a RSV- beta-Gal construct. Cardiomyocytes were stimulated by endothelin-1 (ET-1) (10(-8)M) to induce hypertrophy, thereby yielding the characteristic changes in gene expression (upregulation of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) and downregulation of PL). The basal activity of an ANF promoter fragment (increasing from the lowest to highest density 2.6-fold) and its ET-1 inducibility (only significant upregulation of 2.6-fold, at lowest density) appeared to be dependent on the plating density of the cardiomyocytes. A PL promoter fragment was isolated, sequenced and 1.4 kb was subcloned in a luciferase reporter vector. The basal activity of the PL promoter fragment was not dependent on the plating density. ET-1 did not downregulate the PL promoter, rather a significant upregulation (1.4-fold) was found at the highest plating density. In conclusion, plating density of the cardiomyocytes can influence promoter activity as shown with an ANF promoter fragment. A newly isolated and sequenced rat PL promoter fragment did not direct gene expression as expected on basis of downregulation of the PL gene by ET-1 observed in this model.

Characterization of proximal transcription regulatory elements in the rat phospholamban promoter

Phospholamban is a major regulator of cardiac diastole, with alterations in expression associated with modified cardiac relaxation. To study transcriptional regulation of phospholamban expression, we made reporter constructs that expressed luciferase under control of putative promoter sequences from the rat phospholamban gene. When transfected into neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, constructs containing at least 159 nucleotides preceding the transcription start site were equally active, while truncation to -66/+64 removed all promoter activity. Constructs were more active in cardiomyocytes than in HeLa cells (which do not express phospholamban), but did not show absolute cell-type specificity of expression. Addition of sequences upstream to -4032, all of the intron (7.4 kb), or 3'UTR sequences (0. 8 kb) did not enhance cell-specific expression. To focus on the basal promoter region (-159/-66), a series of deletion constructs were made that identified a novel 35 bp region (-159/-125; Phospholamban Promoter Element 1, PPE1) required for promoter activity in cardiomyocytes. Site-specific mutations identified nucleotides -150/-133 as containing most of the promoter-enhancing activity. While the rat PPE1 is highly conserved (>70%) in four other mammalian phospholamban genes, it does not contain previously characterized regulatory elements. In cardiomyocytes the PPE1 sequence markedly enhanced activity of the SV40 early promoter. A conserved CCAAT element (-83/-79) was also required for promoter activity in both cardiomyocytes and HeLa cells. Exonuclease III footprinting identified protein/DNA interactions in both the extended CCAAT box and PPE1 domains. Gel shift studies identified the CCAAT elements as binding CBF/NF-Y.

Molecular Regulation of Phospholamban Function and Expression

Intracellular levels of cAMP regulated by the beta-adrenergic actions of catecholamines play a key in the metabolic, electrical, and mechanical performance of the cardiac muscles. Among a number of biological actions of cAMP, the excitation-contraction coupling process in cardiac myocytes is markedly affected by cAMP through its stimulatory effect on cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Phospholamban, which is expressed in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of cardiac, slow-twitch skeletal, and smooth muscles, is one of the substrates for cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Phospholamban regulates the activity of Ca ATPase in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes in a manner dependent on the phosphorylation state of cAMP-dependent protein kinase, thereby changing the mechanical performance of the cardiac muscles. This Ca regulatory mechanism of phospholamban-Ca ATPase system is mediated by a direct protein-protein interaction between two proteins. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding the role of phospholamban molecule in the regulation of Ca transport by cardiac muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Phospholamban: protein structure, mechanism of action, and role in cardiac function

A comprehensive discussion is presented of advances in understanding the structure and function of phospholamban (PLB), the principal regulator of the Ca2+-ATPase of cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. Extensive historical studies are reviewed to provide perspective on recent developments. Phospholamban gene structure, expression, and regulation are presented in addition to in vitro and in vivo studies of PLB protein structure and activity. Applications of breakthrough experimental technologies in identifying PLB structure-function relationships and in defining its interaction with the Ca2+-ATPase are also highlighted. The current leading viewpoint of PLB's mechanism of action emerges from a critical examination of alternative hypotheses and the most recent experimental evidence. The potential physiological relevance of PLB function in human heart failure is also covered. The interest in PLB across diverse biochemical disciplines portends its continued intense scrutiny and its potential exploitation as a therapeutic target.

In vitro and in vivo promoter analyses of the mouse phospholamban gene

To determine the mechanisms responsible for regulation of the phospholamban (PLB) gene expression, a critical regulatory phosphoprotein in cardiac muscle, the mouse PLB gene was isolated and promoter analysis was performed in vitro and in vivo. The PLB gene consists of two exons separated by a single large intron. Deletion analysis revealed that a 7-kb 5' flanking fragment (including exon 1, the entire intron and part of exon 2) was necessary for maximal transcriptional activity in H9c2 and L6 cell lines. Interestingly, deletion of a 2.4-kb intronic region, which contained repetitive elements, caused a dramatic increase in CAT activity in both these cell lines. In vivo analysis indicated that the PLB fusion gene containing 7 kb of the 5'-flanking region was capable of cardiac specific gene expression in transgenic mice. Furthermore, these mice exhibited 3-fold higher levels of CAT activity in the ventricles compared with the atria, mimicking endogenous PLB mRNA expression. Our findings suggest that: (a) PLB gene expression may be regulated by the interplay of cis-acting regulatory elements located within the 5' flanking and intronic regions; and (b) the 7-kb upstream region is capable of directing cardiac-specific and compartment-specific expression in vivo.

The relative phospholamban and SERCA2 ratio: a critical determinant of myocardial contractility

Phospholamban is a regulatory phosphoprotein which modulates the active transport of Ca2+ by the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticular Ca(2+)-ATPase enzyme (SERCA2) into the lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Phospholamban, which is a reversible inhibitor of SERCA2, represses the enzyme's activity, and this inhibition is relieved upon phosphorylation of phospholamban in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation. In this way, phospholamban is an important regulator of SERCA2-mediated myocardial relaxation during diastole. This report centers on the hypothesis that the relative levels of phospholamban: SERCA2 in cardiac muscle plays an important role in the muscle's overall contractility status. This hypothesis was tested by comparing the contractile parameters of: a) murine atrial and ventricular muscles, which differentially express phospholamban, and b) murine wild-type and phospholamban knock-out hearts. These comparisons revealed that atrial muscles, which have a 4.2-fold lower phospholamban: SERCA2 ratio than ventricular muscles, exhibited rates of force development and relaxation of tension, which were three-fold faster that these parameters for ventricular muscles. Similar comparisons were made via analyses of left-ventricular pressure development recorded for isolated, work-performing hearts from wild-type and phospholamban knock-out mice. In these studies, hearts from phospholamban knock-out mice, which were devoid of phospholamban, exhibited enhanced parameters of left-ventricular contractility in comparison to wild-type hearts. These results suggest that the relative phospholamban: SERCA2 ratio is critical in the regulation of myocardial contractility and alterations in this ratio may contribute to the functional deterioration observed during heart failure.

Structural perspectives of phospholamban, a helical transmembrane pentamer

Phospholamban is a 52-amino-acid protein that assembles into a pentamer in sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes. The protein has a role in the regulation of the resident calcium ATPase through an inhibitory association that can be reversed by phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of phospholamban is initiated by beta-adrenergic stimulation, identifying phospholamban as an important component in the stimulation of cardiac activity by beta-agonists. In this role of phospholamban that has motivated studies in recent decades. There is evidence that phospholamban may also function as a Ca(2+)-selective ion channel. The structural properties of phospholamban have been studied by mutagenesis, modeling, and spectroscopy, resulting in a new view of the organization of this key molecule in membranes.

Differential phospholamban gene expression in murine cardiac compartments. Molecular and physiological analyses

Phospholamban, the regulator of the Ca2+ pump in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum, is differentially expressed between murine atrial and ventricular muscles. Quantitative analyses of RNA isolated from atrial flaps and ventricular apices indicated that the phospholamban gene transcript copy number is 2.5-fold higher in the ventricle compared with the atrium of the FVB/N mouse and 6-fold higher in the ventricle compared with the atrium of the B6D2/F1 mouse strain. These findings were corroborated by in situ hybridization studies of cardiopulmonary sections from both murine strains, and phospholamban transcripts were also observed in pulmonary myocardia of both strains. Analyses of phospholamban transcript levels relative to alpha-myosin heavy chain (alpha-MHC) revealed a 3-fold higher phospholamban abundance in the ventricle compared with the atrium of the FVB/N murine strain. However, the relative mRNA level of Ca(2+)-ATPase (ratio of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase [SERCA2] to alpha-MHC) in the ventricle was 80% of that in the atrium. Consequently, the relative ratio of phospholamban to SERCA2 mRNA was 4.2-fold lower in the atrium than in the ventricle. The lower transcript ratio of phospholamban to SERCA2 in the atrium was associated with significantly shortened times to half-relaxation (17.40 +/- 0.71 milliseconds for atrium versus 30.58 +/- 2.04 milliseconds for ventricle), assessed in isolated superfused cardiac tissue preparations recorded at maximum length tension. Contraction times, measured as times to peak tension, were also significantly shortened in atrial muscle (27.36 +/- 0.82 milliseconds) compared with ventricular muscle (44.60 +/- 2.55 milliseconds), assessed in the same tissue preparations. These findings suggest that phospholamban gene expression is differentially regulated in murine atrial and ventricular muscles and that this differential expression may be associated with differences in the contractile parameters of these cardiac compartments.

Characterization of the molecular form of cardiac phospholamban

The native form of phospholamban is not known and it is presently under debate whether this protein exists as a monomer or an oligomer in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. The currently accepted model for phospholamban is pentameric, based primarily on its behavior in SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In this study, sucrose density gradient centrifugation and gel filtration chromatography were used to determine the form of phospholamban under nondenaturing conditions. Purified phospholamban or phospholamban present in solubilized cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum was centrifuged through 5-20% sucrose density gradients in the absence or presence of n-octylgucoside. The sucrose density gradient fractions were assayed for acid precipitable 32P-incorporation in the presence of [gamma-32P]ATP and cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit. 32P-containing peak fractions were subjected to SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analysis, using a phospholamban-polyclonal antibody, to confirm the presence of phosopholamban. Purified phospholamban migrated with an apparent molecular weight of 25,000 daltons in the sucrose gradients in either the absence or presence of detergent. Phospholamban present in solubilized cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum migrated with a similar apparent molecular weight when detergent was included in the sucrose gradients. In addition, solubilized cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum was subjected to gel filtration chromatography in the presence of deoxycholate. Under these conditions phospholamban migrated with an apparent molecular weight of 24,500 daltons. These data suggest that phospholamban prefers an oligomeric assembly and this may be the form present in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes.

Expression of phospholamban mRNA during early avian muscle morphogenesis is distinct from that of alpha-actin

We have studied the expression of phospholamban during the early development of chick embryos by in situ hybridization and have compared it to that of alpha-cardiac and alpha-skeletal actin. In adult cross-striated muscles there is only one phospholamban gene and it is expressed exclusively in the heart and slow muscles. In the heart phospholamban transcripts were first detected at stage 14 in the region of presumptive ventricle and at stage 20 in the atrium. In the myotomal portion of the somites phospholamban mRNA was first detected at stage 20, which lagged behind the appearance of the alpha-actins. In the limb rudiments all three mRNAs were barely detectable through stage 24, but increased by stage 28+. However, quantitative analysis of signal intensity at stage 28+ indicated that less phospholamban mRNA is present in the limb bud than in the myotome since for phospholamban the ratio of the signal density in the myotome to that in the limb rudiments was about twice the value of the ratio determined for the alpha-actins. Northern blot analysis of embryonic day 11 chick fast pectoralis muscle showed that phospholamban mRNA was not detected in vivo while alpha-cardiac actin mRNA was. Moreover, no phospholamban mRNA was detected in primary cultures derived from pectoralis muscle of the same age. In concert with previous observations that phospholamban is not detectable at stage 30-32 in wing or thigh muscle, these results suggest that phospholamban mRNA is expressed independently of the alpha-actins in the limb buds during early myogenesis.

Mouse phospholamban gene expression during development in vivo and in vitro

To establish a murine model that may allow for definition of the precise role of phospholamban in myocardial contractility through selective perturbations in the phospholamban gene, we initiated studies on the role of phospholamban in the murine heart. Intact beating hearts were perfused in the absence or presence of isoproterenol, and quantitative measurements of cardiac performance were obtained. Isoproterenol stimulation was associated with increases in the affinity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump for Ca2+ that were due to phospholamban phosphorylation. To assess the regulation of phospholamban gene expression during murine development, Northern blot and polymerase chain reaction analyses were used. Phospholamban mRNA was first detected in murine embryos on the ninth day of development (the time when the cardiac tube begins to contract). In murine embryoid bodies, which have been shown to recapitulate several aspects of cardiogenesis, phospholamban mRNA was detected on the seventh day (the time when spontaneous contractions are first observed). Only those embryoid bodies that exhibited contractions expressed phospholamban transcripts, and these were accompanied by expression of the protein, as revealed by immunofluorescence microscopy. Sequence analysis of the cDNA encoding phospholamban in embryoid bodies indicated complete homology to that in adult hearts. The deduced amino acid sequence of murine phospholamban was identical to rabbit cardiac phospholamban but different from dog cardiac and human cardiac phospholamban by one amino acid. These data suggest that phospholamban, the regulator of the Ca(2+)-ATPase in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum, is present very early in murine cardiogenesis in utero and in vitro, and this may constitute an important determinant for proper development of myocardial contractility.

Identification of a highly conserved region at the 5' flank of the phospholamban gene

Phospholamban is a protein that regulates the activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase. The rat phospholamban gene contains a single intron of 6.5 kilobases which interrupts the 5' untranslated region. Primer extension and nuclease mapping analysis identified a major transcription initiation site 87 nucleotides upstream of the first exon/intron junction. A highly conserved region was identified at the 5' flank of the phospholamban gene. This region contained a TATA motif at position -52 which bound nuclear extract, and a consensus CAAT motif at position -76. This highly conserved region may be important in the regulation of basal transcriptional activity.