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Laposchan S, Kranenburg RF, van Asten AC. Impurities, adulterants and cutting agents in cocaine as potential candidates for retrospective mining of GC-MS data. Sci Justice 2022; 62:60-75. [PMID: 35033329 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most widely used illicit drugs worldwide. Cocaine powders seized by the Police may contain numerous other substances besides the drug itself. These can be impurities originating from the coca plant or the production process, or be purposely added to the drug formulation as adulterants and cutting agents. In forensic laboratories, identification of cocaine is routinely done through GC-MS analysis, but other components are often ignored even if the method allows for their detection. Yet, they can provide valuable insight into the history of a seizure and its potential connection to other samples. To explore this idea, an extensive review of common impurities and adulterants encountered in cocaine is presented. Based on their incidence, concentration in the end product and compatibility with GC-MS methods, their overall usefulness as candidates for the statistical investigation of existing forensic data is evaluated. The impurities cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, norcocaine and N-benzoylnormethylecgonine as well as the adulterants lidocaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, phenacetin, ibuprofen, levamisole, hydroxyzine and diltiazem are promising candidates to provide additional forensic intelligence. Future research on optimized routine GC-MS methods, signal reproducibility, comparison, statistics and databases is suggested to facilitate this concept. Ultimately, such an approach may significantly advance the amount of information that is extracted from routine casework data, elucidate developments in the cocaine markets in the past and facilitate Police work in the future. Preliminary assessment of existing data from the forensic laboratory of the Amsterdam Police has been included to show that the detection of the identified target impurities is feasible, and that small adjustments to the analysis method could significantly increase the detectability of these analytes in prospective drug screenings. Forensic intelligence based on retrospective data mining of cocaine containing casework samples may thus be realized with minimal additional laboratory efforts by using already available instrumentation, samples and data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Laposchan
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands.
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
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2
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Collins M, Doddridge A, Salouros H. Cathinones: Isotopic profiling as an aid to linking seizures. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:903-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Collins
- National Measurement Institute; Riverside Corporate Park; North Ryde Sydney Australia
| | - Alexandra Doddridge
- Centre for Forensic Science; University of Technology; Sydney Broadway NSW Australia
| | - Helen Salouros
- National Measurement Institute; Riverside Corporate Park; North Ryde Sydney Australia
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3
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Mallette JR, Casale JF. Rapid determination of the isomeric truxillines in illicit cocaine via capillary gas chromatography/flame ionization detection and their use and implication in the determination of cocaine origin and trafficking routes. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1364:234-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.08.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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4
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Stojanovska N, Tahtouh M, Kelly T, Beavis A, Fu S. Qualitative analysis of seized cocaine samples using desorption electrospray ionization- mass spectrometry (DESI-MS). Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:393-400. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Stojanovska
- Centre for Forensic Science; University of Technology, Sydney (UTS); PO Box 123, Broadway NSW 2000 Australia
| | - Mark Tahtouh
- Australian Federal Police; 110 Goulburn St Sydney NSW 2007 Australia
| | - Tamsin Kelly
- National Centre for Forensic Studies, Faculty of Education, Science, Technology and Mathematics (ESTeM); University of Canberra; ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Alison Beavis
- Centre for Forensic Science; University of Technology, Sydney (UTS); PO Box 123, Broadway NSW 2000 Australia
| | - Shanlin Fu
- Centre for Forensic Science; University of Technology, Sydney (UTS); PO Box 123, Broadway NSW 2000 Australia
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5
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Lydon J, Casale JF, Kong H, Sullivan JH, Daughtry CST, Bailey B. The Effects of Ambient Solar UV Radiation on Alkaloid Production byErythroxylum novogranatensevar.novogranatense. Photochem Photobiol 2009; 85:1156-61. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2009.00562.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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6
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Collins M, Huttunen J, Evans I, Robertson J. Illicit drug profiling: the Australian experience. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/00450610701324924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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7
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Geographic Origin Determination of Heroin and Cocaine Using Site-Specific Isotopic Ratio Deuterium NMR. J Forensic Sci 2000. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs14728j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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8
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Griffin WJ, Lin GD. Chemotaxonomy and geographical distribution of tropane alkaloids. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2000; 53:623-637. [PMID: 10746874 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9422(99)00475-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This review illustrates the distribution of tropane alkaloids within the families Solanaceae, Erythroxylaceae, Proteaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Convolvulaceae and Cruciferae. Whereas tropane alkaloids are characteristic of the genera Datura, Brugmansia (tree datura) and Duboisia of the Solanaceae, the distribution is more widespread with novel tropane derivatives in families not traditionally associated with these bases. The chemical nature of more recently discovered water-soluble calystegines and the di- and trimeric forms from the Convolvulaceae (e.g. schizanthines from Schizanthus spp.), truxillines from Bolivian coca leaves and moonines of Erythroxylum moonii are highlighted. Where possible and appropriate, links between the phytochemistry and taxonomy are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W J Griffin
- School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
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Chiarotti M, Fucci N. Comparative analysis of heroin and cocaine seizures. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 1999; 733:127-36. [PMID: 10572978 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00240-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In this brief review the analytical techniques mainly used for comparative analysis of both cocaine and heroin seizures are reported. The characterization of illicit samples is carried out by means of a variety of techniques including thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. By means of these technique it is possible to resolve some component in illicit drugs and their application for comparative analyses is described in this review. Owing to the complexity and the variability of the mixture related to the origin and manufacturing impurities a unique analytical approach based on the application of a single technique it is not sufficient to achieve the requested global characterization of the sample for comparative purposes. Generally a complete characterization is obtained focusing on the identification of minor and major components, origin and manufacturing impurities other than trace compounds such as solvent residues. Nevertheless the application of a single robust methods able to resolve any possible significant marker compounds, is still not described and there is a need for a standardized general procedure suitable for a complete cross-examination of analytical data related to comparative analyses that can be carried out at an international level.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chiarotti
- Istituto di Medicina Legale Universita' Cattolica, Rome, Italy
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Thormann W, Wey AB, Lurie IS, Gerber H, Byland C, Malik N, Hochmeister M, Gehrig C. Capillary electrophoresis in clinical and forensic analysis: recent advances and breakthrough to routine applications. Electrophoresis 1999; 20:3203-36. [PMID: 10596826 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1522-2683(19991001)20:15/16<3203::aid-elps3203>3.0.co;2-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This paper is a comprehensive review article on capillary electrophoresis (CE) in clinical and forensic analysis. It is based upon the literature of 1997 and 1998, presents CE examples in major fields of application, and provides an overview of the key achievements encountered, including those associated with the analysis of drugs, serum proteins, hemoglobin variants, and nucleic acids. For CE in clinical and forensic analysis, the past two years witnessed a breakthrough to routine applications. As most coauthors of this review are associated with diagnostic or forensic laboratories now using CE on a routine basis, this review also contains data from routine applications in drug, protein, and DNA analysis. With the first-hand experience of providing analytical service under stringent quality control conditions, aspects of quality assurance, assay specifications for clinical and forensic CE and the pros and cons of this maturing, cost-and pollution-controlled age technology are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Thormann
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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Lurie IS, Hays PA, Casale JF, Moore JM, Castell DM, Chan KC, Issaq HJ. Capillary electrophoresis analysis of isomeric truxillines and other high molecular weight impurities in illicit cocaine. Electrophoresis 1998; 19:51-6. [PMID: 9511862 DOI: 10.1002/elps.1150190110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of by-products and impurities in illicit cocaine, including the isomeric truxillines, is important for derivation of both strategic and tactical intelligence. In the present study, various capillary electrophoresis techniques were investigated for this purpose. The use of the anionic beta-cyclodextrin sulfobutyl ether IV as a run buffer additive at pH 8.6 gave a good separation of the truxillines and similar high molecular weight impurities in less than eight minutes. These impurities were first isolated from the bulk cocaine matrix using liquid-liquid extraction and size-exclusion high performance liquid chromatography. There was a red shift in the UV spectra obtained for the truxillines using photodiode array (PDA) UV detection during CE analysis. This anomalous behavior is attributed to photo-degradation of the truxillines during the PDA-UV irradiation process. Laser-induced fluorescence detection using a UV krypton/fluoride laser provided greater selectivity and sensitivity versus UV detection for certain uncharacterized high molecular weight impurities.
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Affiliation(s)
- I S Lurie
- US Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, McLean, VA 22102-3494, USA
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12
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Comparative Determination of 2-Carbomethoxy-3-Alkyloxy- and Heteroaroyloxy-Substituted Tropanes in Illicit South American Cocaine Using Capillary Gas Chromatography-Single Ion Monitoring. J Forensic Sci 1998. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs16099j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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13
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Lesser Alkaloids of Cocaine-Bearing Plants. Part I: Nicotinoyl-, 2′-Pyrroloyl, and 2′- and 3′-Furanoylecgonine Methyl Ester—Isolation and Mass Spectral Characterization of Four New Alkaloids of South AmericanErythroxylum cocaVar.coca. J Forensic Sci 1997. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs14105j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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14
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Moore JM, Casale JF, Cooper DA. Comparative determination of total isomeric truxillines in illicit, refined, South American cocaine hydrochloride using capillary gas chromatography-electron capture detection. J Chromatogr A 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(96)00651-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Fernández-Abedul M, Costa-García A. Flow injection analysis with amperometric detection of cocaine in confiscated samples. Anal Chim Acta 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0003-2670(96)00105-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Detection and Determination of Pseudococaine in Coca Leaves and Illicit Cocaine Samples. J Forensic Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13741j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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17
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Casale JF, Moore JM. An in-depth analysis of pharmaceutical cocaine: cocaethylene and other impurities. J Pharm Sci 1994; 83:1186. [PMID: 7983607 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600830822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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18
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Moore JM, Casale JF. In-depth chromatographic analyses of illicit cocaine and its precursor, coca leaves. J Chromatogr A 1994; 674:165-205. [PMID: 8075769 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(94)85224-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chromatographic methodology used for the in-depth alkaloid analyses of coca leaves and for the characterization of alkaloidal impurities and manufacturing by-products in illicit refined cocaine samples is reviewed. This includes liquid-liquid partition and liquid-solid adsorption column chromatography, packed- and capillary-column gas chromatography with flame-ionization, electron-capture, nitrogen-phosphorous and mass spectrometric detection, and high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. The rationale supporting the presence and determination of processing impurities/by-products in cocaine samples is discussed, and chromatographic methodology used for the development of drug impurity signature profiles is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Moore
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, McLean, VA 22102-3494
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19
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3′,4′,5′-Trimethoxy-Substituted Analogs of Cocaine,Cis-/Trans-Cinnamoylcocaine and Tropacocaine: Characterization and Quantitation of New Alkaloids in Coca Leaf, Coca Paste and Refined Illicit Cocaine. J Forensic Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13617j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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20
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Impurity Profiling Analysis of Illicit Methamphetamine by Capillary Gas Chromatography. J Forensic Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13622j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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21
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Moore JM, Casale JF, Klein RF, Cooper DA, Lydon J. Determination and in-depth chromatographic analyses of alkaloids in South American and greenhouse-cultivated coca leaves. J Chromatogr A 1994; 659:163-75. [PMID: 8118557 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(94)85018-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Methodology is described for the detection and/or determination of cocaine and minor alkaloids in South American coca as well as in greenhouse- and tropical-cultivated field coca of known taxonomy. Coca leaf from Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia were subjected to the determination of cocaine, cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, hygrine, cuscohygrine and the isomeric truxillines. The greenhouse samples were cocaine-bearing leaves of the genus Erythroxylum and included E. coca var. coca, E. novogranatense var. novogranatense and E. novogranatense var. truxillense, and the alkaloids determined were cocaine, ecgonine methyl ester, cuscohygrine, tropacocaine and the cinnamoylcocaines. The tropical-cultivated coca were E. novogranatense var. novogranatense and E. coca var. coca. Cocaine and minor alkaloids were isolated from basified powdered leaf samples using a toluene extractant, followed by acid-Celite column chromatography. The isolated alkaloids were determined by capillary gas chromatography with flame ionization or electron-capture detection. Methodology is also presented for the isolation and mass spectral analysis of numerous trace-level coca alkaloids of unknown structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Moore
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, McLean, VA 22102-3494
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22
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The Anatomy of a Cocaine Comparison Case: A Prosecutorial and Chemistry Perspective. J Forensic Sci 1993. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13536j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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23
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The Application of Capillary Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detection in the Comparative Analyses of Illicit Cocaine Samples. J Forensic Sci 1993. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13535j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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24
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A Computerized Neural Network Method for Pattern Recognition of Cocaine Signatures. J Forensic Sci 1993. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13408j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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26
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A Rapid Gas Chromatographic Method for the Fingerprinting of Illicit Cocaine Samples. J Forensic Sci 1992. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13254j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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27
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Isolation, Identification, and Origin of Three Previously Unknown Congeners in Illicit Cocaine. J Forensic Sci 1991. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13191j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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28
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Detection, Isolation, and Identification of Truxillines in Illicit Cocaine by Means of Thin-Layer Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. J Forensic Sci 1991. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13153j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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A Chromatographic Impurity Signature Profile Analysis for Cocaine Using Capillary Gas Chromatography. J Forensic Sci 1991. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13154j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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30
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MacKay GA, Reed GD. The application of capillary SFC, packed column SFC, and capillary SFC-MS in the analysis of controlled drugs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1002/jhrc.1240140805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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31
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32
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Lurie IS, Moore JM, Kram TC, Cooper DA. Isolation, identification and separation of isomeric truxillines in illicit cocaine. J Chromatogr A 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)89542-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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