Erythromycin stimulates gastric emptying after esophagectomy with gastric replacement: a randomized clinical trial

Factors resulting in postoperative dysphagia following esophagectomy: a narrative review

Esophagectomy is a technically involved surgery and can have significant postoperative morbidity. Although the mortality rate following esophagectomy has decreased in recent years, this surgical procedure has a relatively high complication rate compared to other surgeries to resect cancer. One of the most common complaints after esophagectomy is dysphagia. Dysphagia after esophagectomy can significantly affect quality of life. Dysphagia is a complication following esophagectomy that can lead to respiratory deterioration and death. The most common sites of postoperative dysphagia are the gastroesophageal anastomosis, gastric conduit, pylorus and the hiatus. Without appropriate treatment of dysphagia, malnutrition and dehydration can develop. These factors can lead to significant impacts to the overall health of a patient and increase mortality. A detailed literature review provided data to support diagnostic modalities and management strategies to treat postoperative dysphagia at these common areas. A systematic, evidence-based approach to diagnosis and treatment of postoperative dysphagia allows for prompt intervention and a decrease in morbidity and mortality. Treatment options for dysphagia vary, depending on the etiology. Based on the location and mechanism of dysphagia, options include stenting, dilation and surgical revision. Early treatment of dysphagia after esophagectomy can lessen the morbidity from this complication and improve quality of life.

Surgical intervention for late gastric conduit obstruction

OBJECTIVES

Gastric emptying delay after oesophagectomy may occur in conduits exposed to pleural forces of respiration or anatomic obstruction. Remedial operations addressing both causes are rarely reported. The study aim was to categorize severe gastric conduit obstruction (GCO) and report the outcome of surgical revision.

METHODS

A single-institution, retrospective study of gastric conduit revision following oesophagectomy for oesophageal cancer investigated incidence, risk factors and categories of conduit obstruction. Evaluation consisted of contrast studies, computed tomogram and endoscopy. Interventions were categorized according to obstructive cause and included pyloroplasty, hiatal hernia reduction and thoraco-abdominal conduit repositioning.

RESULTS

Among 1246 oesophagectomies over a 17-year period, 14 patients (1.1%) required post-oesophagectomy relief of GCO. Two additional patients presented after oesophagectomy elsewhere. Before oesophagectomy, 18.8% (3/16) and 62.5% (10/16) of patients were on chronic opioid and psychotropic medications, respectively. Distinct anatomic features separated obstruction into 3 categories: pyloric in 31% (5/16), extrinsic in 12.5% (2/16) and combined in 56.3% (9/16). Operative revision led to complete symptom resolution in 50% (8/16) of patients and symptom improvement in 43.8% (7/16) of patients. One patient (1/16, 6.25%) in the combined obstruction group did not improve with surgical revision.

CONCLUSIONS

GCO after oesophagectomy rarely requires surgical revision. Potential association with medications affecting oesophageal and gastric motility requires further investigation. Classification of obstruction identifies a patient subset with lower success after surgical revision.

Functional syndromes and symptom-orientated aftercare after esophagectomy

BACKGROUND

Surgery is the cornerstone of esophageal cancer treatment but remains burdened with significant postoperative changes of gastrointestinal function and quality of life.

PURPOSE

The aim of this narrative review is to assess and summarize the current knowledge on postoperative functional syndromes and quality of life after esophagectomy for cancer, and to provide orientation for the reader in the challenging field of functional aftercare.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-esophagectomy syndromes include various conditions such as dysphagia, reflux, delayed gastric emptying, dumping syndrome, weight loss, and chronic diarrhea. Clinical pictures and individual expressions are highly variable and may be extremely distressing for those affected. Therefore, in addition to a mostly well-coordinated oncological follow-up, we strongly emphasize the need for regular monitoring of physical well-being and gastrointestinal function. The prerequisite for an effective functional aftercare covering the whole spectrum of postoperative syndromes is a comprehensive knowledge of the pathophysiological background. As functional conditions often require a complex diagnostic workup and long-term therapy, close interdisciplinary cooperation with radiologists, gastroenterologists, oncologists, and specialized nutritional counseling is imperative for successful management.

Endoscopic pyloromyotomy in minimally invasive esophagectomy: a novel approach

BACKGROUND

Pyloric drainage procedures, namely pyloromyotomy or pyloroplasty, have long been considered an integral aspect of esophagectomy. However, the requirement of pyloric drainage in the era of minimally invasive esophagectomy (MIE) has been brought into question. This is in part because of the technical challenges of performing the pyloric drainage laparoscopically, leading many surgical teams to explore other options or to abandon this procedure entirely. We have developed a novel, technically facile, endoscopic approach to pyloromyotomy, and sought to assess the efficacy of this new approach compared to the standard surgical pyloromyotomy.

METHODS

Patients who underwent MIE for cancer from 01/2010 to 12/2019 were identified from a prospectively maintained institutional database and were divided into two groups according to the pyloric drainage procedure: endoscopic or surgical pyloric drainage. 30-day outcomes (complications, length of stay, readmissions) and pyloric drainage-related outcomes [conduit distension/width, nasogastric tube (NGT) duration and re-insertion, gastric stasis] were compared between groups.

RESULTS

94 patients were identified of these 52 patients underwent endoscopic PM and 42 patients underwent surgical PM. The groups were similar with respect to age, gender and comorbidities. There were more Ivor-Lewis esophagectomies in the endoscopic PM group than the surgical PM group [45 (86%), 15 (36%) p < 0.001]. There was no significant difference in the rate of complications and readmissions. Gastric stasis requiring NGT re-insertion was rare in the endoscopic PM group and did not differ significantly from the surgical PM group (1.9-4.7% p = 0.58).

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic pyloromyotomy using a novel approach is a safe, quick and reproducible technique with comparable results to a surgical PM in the setting of MIE.

Erythromycin stimulates phasic gastric contractility as assessed with an isovolumetric intragastric balloon pressure measurement

BACKGROUND

A novel technique to assess gastric motility by measuring the pressure in a low-volume intragastric balloon was developed to monitor (disordered) motility. We previously showed that this technique allows measuring pharmacologically induced inhibition of motility. In this study, we assessed whether it is possible to measure pharmacologically induced stimulation of gastric motility using 200 mg erythromycin. Erythromycin is a highly effective stimulator of gastric emptying and contractility.

METHODS

After an overnight fast, a nasogastric balloon catheter was introduced in healthy subjects. After inflation with 120 ml of air, the catheter was connected to a pressure sensor. Intraballoon pressure was continuously recorded for 4 h. After a baseline recording of 2 h, 200 mg erythromycin was infused intravenously over 20 min while the recording continued for 2 h. Epigastric symptoms were surveyed on 100-mm visual analogue scales. Motility was quantified from the pressure recording as a gastric balloon motility index. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were performed. Data are shown as median (interquartile range).

KEY RESULTS

Six subjects were enrolled and five completed the procedures (age: 28 (25-29) years, body mass index: 24.0 (23.8-24.5) kg m^-2 ). One subject could not tolerate tube placement. Bloating, nausea, and epigastric sensation scores were 0 (0-3), 0 (0-1), and 1 (0-1) mm, respectively. Erythromycin significantly increased the motility index from 0.48 (0.41-0.51) to 0.79 (0.70-0.82) (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

Gastric motility assessed via pressure measurement in a low-volume intragastric balloon is able to detect pharmacologically stimulated motility in healthy subjects, which further validates this technique.

The Optimal Pyloric Procedure: A Collective Review

Vagal damage and subsequent pyloric denervation inevitably occur during esophagectomy, potentially leading to delayed gastric emptying (DGE). The choice of an optimal pyloric procedure to overcome DGE is important, as such procedures can lead to prolonged surgery, shortening of the conduit, disruption of the blood supply, and gastric dumping/bile reflux. This study investigated various pyloric methods and analyzed comparative studies in order to determine the optimal pyloric procedure. Surgical procedures for the pylorus include pyloromyotomy, pyloroplasty, or digital fracture. Botulinum toxin injection, endoscopic balloon dilatation, and erythromycin are non-surgical procedures. The scope, technique, and effects of these procedures are changing due to advances in minimally invasive surgery and postoperative interventions. Some comparative studies have shown that pyloric procedures are helpful for DGE, while others have argued that it is difficult to reach an objective conclusion because of the variety of definitions of DGE and evaluation methods. In conclusion, recent advances in interventional technology and minimally invasive surgery have led to questions regarding the practice of pyloric procedures. However, many clinicians still perform them and they are at least somewhat effective. To provide guidance on the optimal pyloric procedure, DGE should first be defined clearly, and a large-scale study with an objective evaluation method will then be required.

Delayed Gastric Emptying after Esophagectomy: Management and Prevention

The quality of life associated with eating is becoming an increasingly significant problem for patients who undergo esophagectomy as a result of the improved survival rate after esophageal cancer surgery. Delayed gastric emptying (DGE) is a common complication after esophagectomy. Although several strategies have been proposed for the management and prevention of DGE, no clear consensus exists. The purpose of this review is to present a brief overview of DGE and to help clinicians choose the most appropriate treatment through an analysis of DGE by cause. Furthermore, we would like to suggest some tips to prevent DGE based on our experience.

Endoscopic Botulinum toxin as a treatment for delayed gastric emptying following oesophagogastrectomy

INTRODUCTION

The incidence of delayed gastric emptying (DGE) following oesophagogastrectomy with gastric conduit reconstruction is reported to be between 1.7% and 50%. This variation is due to differing practices of intraoperative pylorus drainage procedures, which increase the risk of postoperative biliary reflux and dumping syndrome, resulting in significant morbidity. The aim of our study was to establish rates of DGE in people undergoing oesophagogastrectomy without routine intraoperative drainage procedures, and to evaluate outcomes of postoperative endoscopically administered Botulinum toxin into the pylorus (EBP) for people with DGE resistant to systemic pharmacological treatment.

METHODS

All patients undergoing oesophagogastrectomy between 1 January 2016 and 31 March 2018 at our unit were included. No intraoperative pyloric drainage procedures were performed, and DGE resistant to systemic pharmacotherapy was managed with EBP.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven patients were included. Postoperatively, 29 patients (30%) were diagnosed with DGE resistant to pharmacotherapy. Of these, 16 (16.5%) were diagnosed within 30 days of surgery. The median pre-procedure nasogastric tube aspirate was 780ml; following EBP, this fell to 125ml (p<0.001). Median delay from surgery to EBP in this cohort was 13 days (IQR 7-16 days). Six patients required a second course of EBP, with 100% successful resolution of DGE before discharge. There were no procedural complications.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest series of patients without routine intraoperative drainage procedures. Only 30% of patients developed DGE resistant to pharmacotherapy, which was managed safely with EBP in the postoperative period, thus minimising the risk of biliary reflux in people who would otherwise be at risk following prophylactic pylorus drainage procedures.

Delayed emptying of the gastric conduit after esophagectomy

With increasing survival after esophagectomy for cancer, a growing number of individuals living with the functional results of a surgically altered anatomy calls for attention to the effects of delayed gastric conduit emptying (DGCE) on health-related quality of life and nutritional impairment. We here give an overview of the currently available literature on DGCE, in terms of epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostics, prevention and treatment. Attention is given to controversies in the current literature and obstacles related to general applicability of study results, as well as knowledge gaps that may be the focus for future research initiatives. Finally, we propose that measures are taken to reach international expert agreement regarding diagnostic criteria and a symptom grading tool for DGCE, and that functional radiological methods are established for the diagnosis and severity grading of DGCE.

Mortality and postoperative complications after different types of surgical reconstruction following pancreaticoduodenectomy-a systematic review with meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pancreaticoduodenectomy/PD is a technically demanding pancreatic resection. Options of surgical reconstruction include (1) the child reconstruction defined as pancreatojejunostomy/PJ followed by hepaticojejunostomy/HJ and the gastrojejunostomy/GJ "the standard/s-Child," (2) the s-child reconstruction with an additional Braun enteroenterostomy "BE-Child," or (3) Isolated-Roux-En-Y-pancreaticojejunostomy "Iso-Roux-En-Y," in which the pancreas anastomosis is reconstructed in a separate loop after the GJ. Yet, the impact of these reconstruction methods on patients' outcome has not been sufficiently compared in a systematic manner.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted according to the Preferred-Reporting-Items-for-Systematic-review-and-Meta-Analysis/PRISMA-guidelines by screening Pubmed/Medline, Scopus, Cochrane Library and Web-of-Science. Articles meeting predefined criteria were extracted and meta-analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Nineteen studies were identified comparing BE-Child or Isolated-Roux-En-Y vs. s-Child. Compared to s-Child neither BE-Child (p = 0.43) nor Iso-Roux-En-Y (p = 0.94) displayed an impact on postoperative mortality, whereas BE-Child showed less postoperative complications (p = 0.02). BE-Child (p = 0.15) and Iso-Roux-En-Y (p = 0.61) did not affect postoperative pancreatic fistula/POPF in general, but BE-Child was associated with a decrease of clinically relevant POPF (p = 0.005), clinically relevant delayed gastric emptying/DGE B/C (p = 0.004), bile leaks (p = 0.01), and hospital stay (p = 0.06). BE-Child entailed also an increased operation time (p = 0.0002) with no impact on DGE A/B/C, hemorrhage, surgical site infections and pulmonary complications.

CONCLUSION

BE-Child is associated with a decreased risk for postoperative complications, particularly a decreased risk for clinically relevant DGE, POPF, and bile leaks, whereas Iso-Roux-En-Y does not seem to affect the clinical course after PD. Therefore, BE seems to be a valuable surgical method to improve patients' outcome after PD.

Management of delayed gastric conduit emptying after esophagectomy

Delayed gastric conduit emptying (DGE) is a common complication after esophagectomy. Currently, pyloric interventions are the major prevention and treatment for DGE. In this review, we attempt to evaluate the clinical effect and safety of different pyloric interventions in esophagectomy patients. Moreover, other important management of DGE, including size of esophageal substitute, erythromycin and nasogastric tube (NGT) will also be discussed.

Gastric Outlet Obstruction After Esophagectomy: Retrospective Analysis of the Effectiveness and Safety of Postoperative Endoscopic Pyloric Dilatation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Delayed gastric emptying after esophagectomy with gastric replacement can pose a significant postoperative problem, often leading to aspiration and pneumonia. The present study analyzes retrospectively the effectiveness of endoscopic pyloric dilatation for post-surgical gastric outlet obstruction.

METHODS

Between March 2006 and March 2010, 403 patients underwent a transthoracic en-bloc esophagectomy and reconstruction with a gastric tube and intrathoracic esophagogastrostomy. In patients with postoperative symptoms of an outlet dysfunction and the confirmation by endoscopy, pyloric dilatations were performed without preference with either 20- or 30-mm balloons.

RESULTS

A total of 89 balloon dilatations of the pylorus after esophagectomy were performed in 60 (15.6 %) patients. In 21 (35 %) patients, a second dilatation of the pylorus was performed. 55 (61.8 %) dilatations were performed with a 30-mm balloon and 34 (38.2 %) with a 20-mm balloon. The total redilatation rate for the 30-mm balloon was 20 % (n = 11) and 52.9 % (n = 18) for the 20-mm balloon (p < 0.001). All dilatations were performed without any complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Pylorus spasm contributes to delayed gastric emptying leading to postoperative complications after esophagectomy. Endoscopic pyloric dilatation after esophagectomy is a safe procedure for treatment of gastric outlet obstruction. The use of a 30-mm balloon has the same safety profile but a 2.5 lower redilatation rate compared to the 20-mm balloon. Thus, the use of 20-mm balloons has been abandoned in our clinic.

Thoracoscopic Implant of Neurostimulator for Delayed Gastric Conduit Emptying After Esophagectomy

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Gastroparesis is a clinical syndrome characterized by delayed gastric emptying in the absence of mechanical outlet obstruction. Use of the denervated stomach as an esophageal substitute is a common cause of transient gastroparesis. Gastric electrostimulation through a thoracotomy approach has previously been reported to be effective in patients with medically refractory postesophagectomy gastroparesis. We report the first thoracoscopic implant of a gastric neurostimulator.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A 57-year-old woman underwent Ivor Lewis esophagectomy for early stage (T1N0) adenocarcinoma in 2007. She progressively developed progressive dysphagia, regurgitation, and a 29-kg weight loss. The barium swallow study and upper gastrointestinal endoscopy showed a dilated intrathoracic stomach without evidence of mechanical obstruction. Erythromycin and multiple endoscopic dilatations of the pylorus were unsuccessful, and eventually, a feeding jejunostomy was performed. At the time the patient was referred to our outpatient clinic, she was unable to eat and depended on total enteral nutrition. Computed tomography, endoscopy, and barium swallow study confirmed that there was no evidence of recurrent adenocarcinoma or mechanical gastric outlet obstruction. A gastric electrostimulator system (Enterra(®)) was implanted through a right thoracoscopic access and connected to the gastric conduit. At 6-month follow-up, there was a significant improvement of the total symptom score and quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

Electrostimulation of the gastric conduit after esophagectomy can safely be performed through a thoracoscopic approach and may represent a reasonable therapeutic option in patients with symptomatic and medically refractory delayed gastric emptying.

[Treatment of postoperative impairment of gastrointestinal motility, cholangitis and pancreatitis]

Although the mortality associated with major hepatopancreaticobiliary surgery has continuously decreased during the last decades, the morbidity of these procedures remains high. Functional disturbances of normal gastrointestinal motility as well as inflammation and infections of surgically treated organs are frequent complications resulting in considerably prolonged lengths of stay in hospital and increased healthcare costs. This review article highlights the therapeutic approaches and recent developments in the treatment of delayed gastric emptying, prolonged postoperative ileus, postoperative cholangitis and pancreatitis after hepatopancreaticobiliary surgery. Current practice is discussed on the basis of recent results in basic and clinical research, review articles, meta-analyses and guidelines.

Outcomes in the management of esophageal cancer

Esophageal cancer rates have continued to rise in the Western World. Esophageal cancer will be responsible for an estimated 15,450 deaths in the United States in 2014 alone. Esophageal resection with or without preoperative therapy remains the mainstay of treatment. Advances in surgical technique and perioperative care have improved short-term outcomes considerably by decreasing operative mortality. Despite these advances though, esophagectomy remains a procedure associated with considerable morbidity from a wide range of complications. Prompt recognition and treatment of complications can lower overall morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, long-term outcomes remain poor as the vast majority of patients present with loco-regionally advanced or metastatic disease. Surgery by itself provides poor loco-regional control and fails to address micrometastatic disease. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiation provides a modest survival advantage compared to surgical resection alone. Future gains in understanding the molecular biology of esophageal cancer will hopefully lead to improved therapeutics and resultant outcomes.

Review article: the role of gastrointestinal hormones in the treatment of delayed gastric emptying in critically ill patients

BACKGROUND

Delayed gastric emptying limits the administration of enteral nutrition, leading to malnutrition, which is associated with higher mortality and morbidity. Currently available prokinetics have limitations in terms of sustained efficacy and side effects.

AIM

To summarise the mechanisms of action and to discuss the possible utility of gastrointestinal hormones to prevent or treat delayed gastric emptying in critically ill patients.

METHODS

We searched PubMed for articles discussing 'delayed gastric emptying', 'enteral nutrition', 'treatment', 'gastrointestinal hormones', 'prokinetic', 'agonist', 'antagonist' and 'critically ill patients'.

RESULTS

Motilin and ghrelin receptor agonists initiate the migrating motor complex in the stomach, which accelerates gastric emptying. Cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY have an inhibiting effect on gastric emptying; therefore, antagonising these gastrointestinal hormones may have therapeutic potential. Other gastrointestinal hormones appear less promising.

CONCLUSIONS

Manipulation of endogenous secretion, physiological replacement and administration of gastrointestinal hormones in pharmacological doses is likely to have therapeutic potential in the treatment of delayed gastric emptying. Future challenges in this field will include the search for candidates with improved selectivity and favourable kinetic properties.

Complications of esophagectomy

Esophagectomy remains the gold standard curative therapy for the treatment of esophageal cancer. Despite 125 years of evolution, esophagectomy remains a demanding procedure associated with a 5% to 10% mortality and a 50% morbidity rate. Knowledge of the multitude of techniques possible for performing this complex procedure, as well as the host of associated complications, is vital for the practitioner aspiring to treat this challenging disease.

The effect of erythromycin on gastrointestinal motility in subtotal gastrectomized patients

Purpose

Our objective was to determine the effect of erythromycin (EM) in improving gastrointestinal motility in subtotal gastrectomized patients. We used radio-opaque Kolomarks as an objective method. We conducted a prospective, controlled clinical trial study of 24 patients.

Methods

All patients underwent subtotal gastrectomy with 3 capsules containing Kolomarks (20 markers per 1 capsule) in the remnant stomach before anastomosis. From the day of the operation to the 2nd postoperative day, patients in the EM group began receiving 200 mg of EM intravenously for 30 minutes continuously. We counted the number of Kolomarks in the stomach, passed by stomach, in rectum, and in stool with serial simple abdominal X-ray films on the first postoperative day up to the 7th postoperative day.

Results

The study population included 14 patients in the control group and 10 patients in the EM group. The two study groups were compared in terms of their characteristics including age, gender, past medical history, cancer stage, and operation type. No significant differences were found for the demographics between the two groups. We only found a significant difference for the number of Kolomarks passed by the stomach on the 3rd postoperative day (P = 0.026).

Conclusion

Our results demonstrated that 200 mg of EM intravenous infusion during the postoperative period induced rapid gastric emptying, although it did not improve gastrointestinal motility for the entire gastrointestinal tract in subtotal gastrectomized patients.

Functional disorders and quality of life after esophagectomy and gastric tube reconstruction for cancer

Functional disorders such as delayed gastric emptying, dumping syndrome or duodeno-gastro-esophageal reflux occur in half of the patients who undergo esophagectomy and gastric tube reconstruction for cancer. The potential role for pyloroplasty in the prevention of functional disorders is still debated. Antireflux fundoplication during esophagectomy can apparently reduce the reflux but at the cost of increasing the complexity of the operation; it is not widely used. The treatment of functional disorders arising after esophagectomy and gastroplasty for cancer is based mainly on dietary measures. Proton pump inhibitors have well documented efficiency and should be given routinely to prevent reflux complications. Erythromycin may prevent delayed gastric emptying, but it should be used with caution in patients with cardiovascular disorders. In the event of anastomotic stricture, endoscopic dilatation is usually efficient. Problems related to gastrointestinal functional disorders after esophageal resection and gastric tube reconstruction do not significantly impair long-term quality of life, which is mainly influenced by tumor recurrence.

Prevention of early delayed gastric emptying after high-level esophagogastrostomy by "pyloric digital fracture"

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to evaluate the clinical efficacy of pyloric digital fracture for the prevention of early delayed gastric emptying (DGE) after high-level esophagogastrostomy.

METHODS

From January 2004 to March 2009, we sequentially enrolled 78 patients after esophagogastrostomy: 48 patients with pyloric digital fracture (DF group) and 30 patients without any drainage procedure (non-DF group). Intraoperative manometric study was performed in 48 patients of the DF group. Postoperative evaluation was performed, including symptomatic questionnaire, radiographic study, and gastric scintigraphy.

RESULTS

Intraoperative manometric study revealed that basal pyloric pressure and peak pressure of pylorus in phase III of the migrating motor complex increased significantly after gastric conduit was made and anastomosed, but decreased appreciably following digital fracture. Compared with the peak pressure of IPPW before digital fracture (88.52 ± 19.88 mmHg), it appreciably decreased following digital fracture (40.45 ± 13.52 mmHg). Occurrences of IPPW (in 10 min) and duration time of each occurrence (s) had similar trends for before and after digital fracture (11.5 ± 4.5 vs. 5.0 ± 3.5 and 7.0 ± 2.0 vs. 3.0 ± 1.0, respectively). Postoperative evaluation demonstrated that early DGE occurred in four patients in the non-DF group (13.3%), and there was no DGE patient in the DF group. There was significant difference regarding gastric scores between the DF group and the non-DF group (10.5 ± 3.4 vs. 16.7 ± 3.8, t = 2.8271, P < 0.05). Gastric scintigraphy revealed that either semi-emptying-time or percent of retention at 4 h of the DF group was significantly lower than that of the non-DF group.

CONCLUSION

Pyloric digital fracture can prevent early DGE after high-level esophagogastrostomy efficaciously and conveniently.

Esophagectomy for the treatment of esophageal cancer

Esophageal cancer is an aggressive disease with an overall poor prognosis. Esophagectomy remains a key therapeutic option in treating patients who have this disease. Tailoring the surgical approach to the patient and the nature of his or her malignancy is essential. Over time, advances in staging, preoperative assessment, operative techniques, and postoperative care have resulted in decreased operative mortality and better long-term outcomes.

Anastomotic strictures and delayed gastric emptying after esophagectomy: incidence, risk factors and management

The aim of this study was to report the incidence, risk factors, and management of gastric conduit dysfunction after esophagectomy in 177 patients over a 3-year period in a single center. Patients with anastomotic strictures or delayed gastric emptying (DGE) were identified from a prospective database. Anastomotic strictures occurred in 48 patients (27%). Eighty-three percent of early anastomotic strictures (<1 year) were benign, and all late strictures (>1 year) were malignant. Dilatation was effective in 98% of benign and 64% of malignant strictures. DGE occurred in 21 patients (12%), and was associated with both anastomotic leak (P = 0.001) and anastomotic stricture (P = 0.001). 4/8 patients with late DGE (>3 months postesophagectomy) were tumor-related. Pyloric dilatation was effective in 92% of early and 63% of late DGE. Pyloric stents were inserted in 3 patients with tumor-related DGE. After esophagectomy, early anastomotic strictures (within 1 year) and early delayed gastric emptying (within 3 months) are usually benign and respond to dilatation. However, patients presenting later with tumor-related obstruction are unlikely to respond to anastomotic or pyloric dilatation and should be stented.

A case of life-threatening nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting are symptoms frequently occurring in the presence of cancer. However, a patient with known cancer may also have a benign cause for nausea and vomiting. This case report of a patient with early gastric carcinoma demonstrates this point, and is a caution against attributing worsening symptoms to worsening cancer. The patient had severe postoperative gastroesophageal reflux and gastroparesis following proximal partial gastrectomy. Ultimately, the nausea and vomiting were totally relieved by completion gastrectomy.

The esophageal remnant after gastric interposition

Gastric interposition is usually considered the reconstruction of choice following esophageal resection. However, a number of reports show that esophagectomy followed by a gastric transplant is associated with poor quality of life and significant reflux esophagitis in the esophageal remnant. The aim of this work is to review the factors affecting the mucosa of the esophageal remnant when using the stomach. A Medline was conducted. Additional references and search pathways were sourced from the references of reviewed articles. Reflux disease is considered an unavoidable consequence of esophageal resection followed by gastric interposition. Mucosal damage from acid and bile exposure in the esophageal remnant affects approximatively 50% of these patients. There is usually no correlation between symptoms and the presence of mucosal damage in the remaining esophagus. Endoscopy and endoscopic biopsies are the only reliable methods to document the status of the mucosa. When present, reflux esophagitis shows a progression from inflammation to erosions and to the development of columnar lined metaplasia. Esophageal and gastric function, gastric drainage operation, level of the anastomosis, route of reconstruction, and patients' position after the operation have all been shown to influence the severity and extent of damage in the esophageal remnant. Prevention and treatment of esophagitis in the remaining esophagus are discussed. When the stomach is used as a substitute to reconstruct the esophagus whether for malignant or benign conditions, an in vivo model of reflux diseases is created. Studies using this model may help clarify molecular and cellular events that lead to irreversible insult on the esophageal mucosa. Improvement to the reconstruction itself must be sought to favor better results with the gastric transplant.

Delayed gastric emptying (DGE) after pancreatic surgery: a suggested definition by the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS)

BACKGROUND

Delayed gastric emptying (DGE) is one of the most common complications after pancreatic resection. In the literature, the reported incidence of DGE after pancreatic surgery varies considerably between different surgical centers, primarily because an internationally accepted consensus definition of DGE is not available. Several surgical centers use a different definition of DGE. Hence, a valid comparison of different study reports and operative techniques is not possible.

METHODS

After a literature review on DGE after pancreatic resection, the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS) developed an objective and generally applicable definition with grades of DGE based primarily on severity and clinical impact.

RESULTS

DGE represents the inability to return to a standard diet by the end of the first postoperative week and includes prolonged nasogastric intubation of the patient. Three different grades (A, B, and C) were defined based on the impact on the clinical course and on postoperative management.

CONCLUSION

The proposed definition, which includes a clinical grading of DGE, should allow objective and accurate comparison of the results of future clinical trials and will facilitate the objective evaluation of novel interventions and surgical modalities in the field of pancreatic surgery.

Complications of esophageal resection and reconstruction

Esophagectomy is an acceptable treatment option for esophageal cancer and various end-stage benign esophageal conditions. However, it still has a significantly high morbidity and mortality. In this review, the most common complications are analyzed using evidenced based data and when applicable, special consideration to operative technique is reviewed.

Trans-cutaneous electrogastrographic study of gastric myoelectric activity in transposed intrathoracic stomach after esophagectomy

We examined the feasibility of trans-cutaneous electrogastrography (EGG) in recording myoelectric activity of the transposed thoracic stomach after esophagectomy. Nineteen patients who had Ivor-Lewis esophagectomy were studied. The EGG signal was recorded using cutaneous electrodes placed over the lower sternum. Eleven patients who underwent total gastrectomy served as controls. Normal rhythm pattern (2.4-3.6 cpm > or = 70%) and power ratio (PR > or = 2) was observed in five and 12 patients, respectively, after esophagectomy. The observation of normal gastric rhythm was more frequent in the postprandial period in the esophagectomy group (median 42.6%vs. 7.4%, P = 0.01), and the PR was significantly higher (median 2.27 vs. 1.38, P = 0.013) than the gastrectomy group. Feeding further increased the prevalence of normal gastric slow wave in the esophagectomy group (median 14.8% to 42.6%, P = 0.002) and improved the stability of dominant frequency (median 78% to 67%, P = 0.015). We conclude that gastric myoelectric activities of thoracic transposed stomach can be detected from cutaneous sternal electrodes. This represented a preservation of gastric motility even when the stomach is pulled up to the thorax as a substitute for the esophagus.

Le reflux biliaire duodéno-gastrique et gastro-œsophagien

This study reviews current data regarding duodenogastric and gastroesophageal bile reflux-pathophysiology, clinical presentation, methods of diagnosis (namely, 24-hour intraluminal bile monitoring) and therapeutic management. Duodenogastric reflux (DGR) consists of retrograde passage of alkaline duodenal contents into the stomach; it may occur due to antroduodenal motility disorder (primary DGR) or may arise following surgical alteration of gastoduodenal anatomy or because of biliary pathology (secondary DGR). Pathologic DGR may generate symptoms of epigastric pain, nausea, and bilious vomiting. In patients with concomitant gastroesophageal reflux, the backwash of duodenal content into the lower esophagus can cause mixed (alkaline and acid) reflux esophagitis, and lead, in turn, to esophageal mucosal damage such as Barrett's metaplasia and adenocarcinoma. The treatment of DGR is difficult, non-specific, and relatively ineffective in controlling symptoms. Proton pump inhibitors decrease the upstream effects of DGR on the esophagus by decreasing the volume of secretions; promotility agents diminish gastric exposure to duodenal secretions by improving gastric emptying. In patients with severe reflux resistant to medical therapy, a duodenal diversion operation such as the duodenal switch procedure may be indicated.

Functional Conduit Disorders After Esophagectomy

Unfortunately normal gastrointestinal function after an esophagectomy is rare. Most patients will never eat the way they did before their illness. Most patients require smaller more frequent meals. It is common for patients to loose up to 15% of their body weight from the time of diagnosis through the first 6 months postoperatively, but fortunately this trend levels off after 6 months. Dumping syndrome, delayed gastric emptying, reflux, and dysphagia can all contribute to nutritional deficiency and poor quality of life. There is no one surgical modification to eliminate any one of these complications, but several guidelines can help reduce conduit dysfunction. Most patients seem to benefit from a 5-cm-wide greater-curvature gastric tube brought up through the posterior mediastinum. The gastric-esophageal anastomosis should be placed higher than the level of the azygous vein. Drainage procedures seem to be helpful, especially when using the whole stomach as a conduit. Early erythromycin therapy significantly aids in the function of the gastric conduit. Proton-pump inhibitors are important for improvement of postoperative reflux symptoms and to help prevent Barrett's metaplasia in the esophageal remnant. Single-layer hand-sewn or semi-mechanical anastomoses provide greater cross-sectional area and fewer problems with stricture. When benign strictures occur, early endoscopy and dilation with proton-pump inhibition greatly reduces the morbidity. Patients should be instructed to eat six small meals a day and to remain upright for as long as possible after eating. Simple sugars and fluid at mealtime should be avoided until the function of the conduit is established.

Surgical techniques

Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) has shown a remarkable increase during recent decades. Most patients are present with advanced stage disease, reflecting transmural growth and metastasis to lymph nodes at the time of diagnosis. Moreover, the pattern of lymph node dissemination is chaotic and difficult to predict, and despite the use of modern technology (e.g., spiral CT, EUS, FDG-PET), clinical staging remains suboptimal. These shortcomings in staging, as well as in different attitudes toward extent of resection and lymphadenectomy, are reflected by a great variation in surgical techniques, which are discussed in this review. As to the results, primary surgery can currently be performed with low mortality, below 5% in high volume centers. Hospital mortality and morbidity are mainly related to pulmonary complications and anastomotic leaks, the latter mostly resolving under conservative treatment. Overall 5-year survival varies between 10% and 59%. As expected the most important prognostic determinants are completeness of resection (R0 vs. R1-R2) and lymph node status (N0, N1). R0 resection currently offers 5-year survival rates of over 40%. Five-year survival figures for node-negative (N0) patients exceed 70%, and even for node-positive (N1), patients reach 25%. It is not known whether performing a three-field lymph node dissection is beneficial for patients with adenocarcinoma of the distal esophagus. With overall 5-year survival currently exceeding 30%-40%, these figures should be the gold standard against which all other therapeutic modalities are compared.

[Complications following oesophagectomy: mechanism, detection, treatment and prevention]

Oesophageal surgery remains a relatively morbid operation with potentially devastating complications that can be minimized by prevention, early recognition, and appropriate management. Anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, and pulmonary failure are the most serious complications. The management of complications following oesophagectomy is reviewed in the following section.

Intrathoracic Gastric Emptying of Solid Food After Esophagectomy for Esophageal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Information on the function of the intrathoracic stomach after esophageal resection for esophageal cancer is limited. This study evaluated the factors affecting intrathoracic gastric emptying of solid food in patients who had undergone this surgery.

METHODS

Between February 2003 and August 2003, intrathoracic gastric emptying of solid food was evaluated by radioisotope in 56 of the patients who underwent esophageal replacement surgery with the stomach for esophageal cancer. The 50% gastric emptying time was categorized into three ranges: over 180 minutes was defined as delayed, within 180 minutes as intermediate, and when all the radioisotopes were dumped into the jejunum as rapid. The factors affecting the gastric emptying were analyzed.

RESULTS

In 6 out of 56 (10.7%) patients the radioisotope removal was too rapid to check the gastric-emptying time, and hence the analysis was performed in 50 patients. Twenty-one (37.5%) patients showed significantly delayed gastric emptying. The 50% gastric emptying time calculated by an exponential fitting method was 422 and 109 minutes in the delayed and intermediate groups, respectively. Age, the method of gastric drainage, and the stomach shape used did not affect the intrathoracic gastric emptying. Only the follow-up interval after surgery was a significant factor on gastric emptying (p = 0.024). The intrathoracic gastric emptying of solid food was more and more increased over time after surgery by regression analysis (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of the intrathoracic stomach as an esophageal substitute had a significant effect on gastric emptying, with intrathoracic gastric emptying of solid foods immediately after esophagectomy being markedly prolonged in about 50% of patients. However, the intrathoracic gastric emptying significantly increased over time. Research is required into improving intrathoracic gastric emptying in the early period after esophagectomy.

Leaks, strictures, and necrosis: a review of anastomotic complications following esophagectomy

Since the first reports of esophageal resection for the treatment of various esophageal diseases and disorders, morbidity related to the anastomosis and the chosen replacement conduit have remained a frequent nemesis, a constant concern, and an ongoing area of research and experimentation. In this review of this key component of esophageal resection, an analysis is presented of the most frequent complications related to the anastomosis and conduit: anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, and conduit stricture. In each case, a review of the current pertinent literature and experience is reported with a view to providing management recommendations to minimize or prevent occurrences, to improve timely diagnosis and to best treat these complications when they arise.

Erythromycin in the short- and long-term control of dyspepsia symptoms in patients with gastroparesis

BACKGROUND

Few prokinetic drugs are available to treat gastroparesis. Data are limited on short-term and long-term efficacy of erythromycin as a prokinetic drug.

GOALS

Assess efficacy of low-dose erythromycin suspension to treat gastroparesis.

STUDY

Patients with dyspepsia and gastroparesis by gastric emptying study were treated with low-bulk diet and low-dose (50-100 mg 3 times a day and at bedtime) oral erythromycin suspension. Data were collected by retrospective chart review and telephone questionnaire for short- and long-term follow-up, respectively.

RESULTS

Of 25 patients, 18 had short-term follow-up, 18 had longterm follow-up, and 14 had both. On short-term follow-up, 15 patients (83%) experienced some or dramatic improvement, while 3 (17%) experienced worsening or no change in symptoms (P = 0.005). Mean duration of long-term use was 11 +/- 7 months. On long-term followup, 12 (67%) patients noticed some or dramatic improvement, while 6 (33%) experienced worsening or no change in symptoms (P = 0.16). Correlation (0.7) between short- and long-term response was significant (P < 0.005). Of the 3 patients with poor short-term response, none did well long term. Of the 11 patients with some or dramatic response in short-term, 7 continued to have some response long term. There was no relation between gastric emptying time and response to erythromycin suspension.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of gastroparesis with low-dose erythromycin and low-bulk diet results in a dramatic short-term improvement in the majority of patients. Short-term response predicts long-term response. This response may not be as great, possibly due to tachyphylaxis.

Prokinetic effect of cisapride on pedicled stomach, small bowel and colon grafts replacing the esophagus after esophageal resection

Cisapride is a potent third generation prokinetic agent acting on postganglionic receptors by increasing the release of acetylcholine. In a prospective, self-controlled study the prokinetic action of cisapride was tested on pedicled stomach, jejunum and colon grafts used for substitute after esophageal resection. Between 1995 and 1998 15 patients with gastric pull up, 10 patients with colon replacement or bypass and eight patients with free jejunum transplant or jejunum replacement were evaluated. Esophageal transit scintigraphy was performed before and after cisapride administration. From the time-activity curves, the half-life of radiolabeled bolus in the esophagus was calculated and preadministration and postadministration half-lives were compared. Cisapride significantly reduced the half-life of radiolabeled bolus in the substitute in the case of stomach and jejunum replacement, while for colon replacement the results were dispersed too widely to yield significant difference. Cisapride exerts prokinetic effect on pedicled stomach and jejunum substitutes after esophageal resection.

Bile exposure of the denervated stomach as an esophageal substitute

BACKGROUND

Both the supine position and the existence of a gastric drainage procedure are suspected to promote reflux of duodenal juice into the denervated intrathoracic stomach. Erythromycin has been shown to weaken pyloric resistance to gastric outflow and to enhance antral motility, gastric emptying, and gallbladder contractility.

METHODS

The presence of bile in the gastric transplant of 79 patients was monitored over a 24-hour period with use of the Bilitec 2000 optoelectronic device 3 to 195 months after subtotal esophagectomy. Ten patients were reinvestigated after a 3-year period. Five groups were studied: group I: n = 12, no gastric drainage, never given erythromycin, group 2: n = 40, gastric drainage, never given erythromycin, group 3: n = 7, no gastric drainage, given erythromycin, group 4: n = 13, gastric drainage, given erythromycin, and group 5: n = 7, no longer given erythromycin (with or without gastric drainage). The percentage of time gastric bile absorbance was more than 0.25 was calculated for the total, supine, and upright periods of recording in reference to data from 25 healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

The Bilitec test was pathologic in 9 of the 12 patients of group 1 whereas it was normal in three. Gastric exposure to bile was longer in group I patients than in controls for the total (p = 0.012) and supine (0.036) periods, but the difference did not reach statistical significance for the upright period (p = 0.080). Bile exposure in group 4 did not significantly differ from controls (total: p = 0.701; supine: p = 0.124; upright: p = 0.712). Bile exposure for the total period did not significantly differ whether patients were taking erythromycin or the drug had been discontinued at the time of the study (p = 0.234); and it tended to decrease with time in patients investigated twice (p = 0.046).

CONCLUSIONS

Gastric exposure to bile after truncal vagotomy and transposition of the stomach up to the neck is pathologic in three quarters of patients. It is more marked in the supine than in the upright position and tends to decrease with time. The addition of a gastric drainage procedure in combination with erythromycin therapy tends to normalize gastric exposure to bile. The effects of erythromycin may persist after discontinuation of the drug.

Pyloroplasty in gastric replacement of the esophagus after esophagectomy: one-layer or two-layer technique?

Pyloroplasty is our routine drainage procedure performed when the stomach is used as the esophageal substitute after esophageal resection for cancer. The technique of pyloroplasty varies among surgeons and effectiveness has not been studied. Thirty-four patients with a gastric conduit whose pyloroplasty was constructed with a one-layer technique (group 1) were compared with a historical cohort of 31 patients treated with a two-layer method (group 2). Patients who had an abnormal pyloroduodenal region were excluded from the study. Perioperative morbidity and post-operative gastrointestinal symptoms within the first 6 months were evaluated. Patient demographics and the types of surgical procedures did not differ between the two groups. The median daily output from the nasogastric tube was 119 mL in group 1 and 115 mL in group 2 (p = 0.49). In 40 out of 65 patients (62%), the nasogastric tube was removed at a median of 3 days after the operation in both groups. There was no leakage from the pylorus or the esophagogastric anastomosis in this study. In both groups, the patients could resume a semisolid diet at a median of 8 days after surgery. One patient in group 1 and two patients in group 2 developed gastroparesis clinically. No patient, however, required reoperation. There was no significant difference in cardiopulmonary complications attributable to the technique of pyloroplasty. The incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms within the first 6 months after surgery did not differ. Regurgitation was the most common symptom, affecting 10 patients in each group, 29% and 32% in group 1 and group 2 respectively (p = 1.0). Pyloroplasty was an effective gastric drainage procedure after esophagectomy whether the one or two-layer method was used. The authors prefer the one-layer method, which is safe and simple.

Denervated stomach as an esophageal substitute recovers intraluminal acidity with time

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the denervated stomach as an esophageal substitute recovers normal intraluminal acidity with time.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Bilateral truncal vagotomy to the stomach as an esophageal substitute reduces both gastric acid production and antral motility, but a spontaneous motor recovery process takes place over years.

METHODS

Intraluminal gastric pH and bile were monitored during a 24-hour period 1 to 195 months after transthoracic elevation of the stomach as esophageal replacement in 91 and 76 patients, respectively. Nine patients underwent a second gastric pH monitoring after a 3-year period. The percentages of time that the gastric pH was less than 2 and bile absorbance exceeded 0.25 were calculated in reference to values from 25 healthy volunteers. Eighty-nine upper gastrointestinal endoscopies were performed in 83 patients. Patients were divided into three groups depending on length of follow-up: group 1, less than 1 year; group 2, 1 to 3 years; group 3, more than 3 years.

RESULTS

The prevalence of a normal gastric pH profile was 32.3% in group 1, 81.5% in group 2, and 97.6% in group 3. The percentage of time that the gastric pH was less than 2 increased from group 1 (27.3%) to group 2 (56.1%) and group 3 (70.5%), parallel to an increase in the prevalence of cervical heartburn and esophagitis. The percentage of time that the gastric pH was less than 2 increased from 28.7% to 81.2% in the nine patients investigated twice. Exposure of the gastric mucosa to bile was 12.8% in patients with a high gastric pH profile versus 19.3% in those with normal acidity. In the esophageal remnant in six patients, Barrett's metaplasia developed, intestinal (n = 2) or gastric (n = 4) in type.

CONCLUSIONS

Early after vagotomy, intraluminal gastric acidity is reduced in two thirds of patients, but the stomach recovers a normal intraluminal pH profile with time, so that in more than one third of patients, disabling cervical heartburn and esophagitis develop. The potential for the development of Barrett's metaplasia in the esophageal remnant brings into question the use of the stomach as an esophageal substitute in benign and early neoplastic disease.

Management of the patient with gastroparesis

Gastroparesis may be related to a variety of underlying disorders, but management options are fairly universal. Dietary measures and pharmacologic agents, primarily in the form of prokinetic medications, form the foundation of standard management. Some patients will have refractory symptoms and alternative dosing schemes or drug combinations may be used. An occasional patient will still require venting gastrostomy and/or jejunal feeding. This review addresses the standard dietary and pharmacologic approaches to gastroparesis, as well as issues pertaining to gastrostomy/jejunostomy tubes and to surgical options for refractory cases. Finally, experimental agents and techniques, such as gastric pacing, will be discussed.

Prokinetic effect of erythromycin after colorectal surgery: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study

PURPOSE

Nausea and vomiting three to seven days after an elective operation on the colon and rectum remain a persistent clinical problem. Erythromycin, a safe, inexpensive drug that stimulates intestinal motilin receptors, has previously been shown to accelerate gastric emptying significantly after upper gastrointestinal surgery. We aimed to evaluate the effect of postoperative intravenous erythromycin on postoperative ileus in patients undergoing elective surgery for primary colorectal cancer.

METHODS

Between May 1998 and April 1999, 150 patients undergoing primary resection of colon or rectal cancer were enrolled in this prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. One hundred thirty-four patients completed the study. Patients were excluded if they had extensive metastatic disease, were taking medications known to interact with erythromycin, or if they required an ileostomy. Patients received either 200 mg of intravenous erythromycin or placebo every six hours. Clinical endpoints were recorded and continuous end-points are presented as mean +/- standard deviation.

RESULTS

There were no significant complications related to erythromycin. The erythromycin (n = 65) and placebo (n = 69) groups were comparable regarding demographic and operative factors. The erythromycin group had a slightly shorter length of time to passage of flatus (4.1 +/- 1.3 vs. 4.4 +/- 1.1 days; P = 0.03). There was no significant difference between erythromycin and placebo in time to first solid food (5.6 +/- 1.9 vs. 5.4 +/- 1.8 days), time to first bowel movement (5.2 +/- 1.9 vs. 5.4 +/- 1.3 days), or time to discharge from hospital (7.5 +/- 2.0 vs. 7.6 +/- 2.8 days). There was no difference in the rate of clinically significant nausea (26 vs. 26 percent; P = 0.99), vomiting (17 vs. 16 percent; P = 0.88), or nasogastric tube placement (9 vs. 7 percent; P = 0.68).

CONCLUSIONS

Erythromycin does not seem to alter clinically important outcomes related to postoperative ileus in patients undergoing resection for colorectal cancer.