Carbon isotope fractionation during abiotic reductive dehalogenation of trichloroethene (TCE)

Use of carbon stable isotopes to monitor biostimulation and electron donor fate in chromium-contaminated groundwater

Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) is a common inorganic contaminant in industrial areas and represents a serious threat to human health due its toxicity. Here we report experimental results from a field-scale investigation of Cr(VI) bio-immobilization at Hanford 100H reservation, a U.S Department of Energy facility (Washington State, USA). Microbial Cr(VI) reduction was stimulated via injection of a¹³C-labeled sodium lactate solution into the high-permeability aquifer consisting of gravel and coarse sand sediments. Concentrations and carbon isotope ratios of metabolites, including dissolved inorganic carbon and total organic carbon, and compound-specific analysis of acetate and propionate, together with phospholipid fatty acids (biomass) have been analyzed to help provide an understanding of the predominant redox processes accompanying Cr(VI) reduction. Results of our study indicate that the injection of an electron donor caused a sharp decrease of Cr(VI) concentration from ∼32 to ∼10 nM. Cr(VI) reduction was associated with a decrease in the concentration of carboxylic acids, such as lactate (∼6 mM to undetectable), propionate (∼9 mM to undetectable), and acetate (∼6 mM to undetectable), as well as dissolved inorganic carbon (30-10 mM C). Carbon isotope data indicate carbon transfers from the original substrate to organic byproducts and mineralized carbon. Concentrations of metabolites and stable isotope data as well as carbon isotope mass balance calculations were used to monitor biologically mediated reduction of Cr(VI).

Geochemical and Isotope Study of Trichloroethene Degradation in a Zero-Valent Iron Permeable Reactive Barrier: A Twenty-Two-Year Performance Evaluation

This study provides a twenty-two-year record of in situ degradation of chlorinated organic compounds by a granular iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB). Groundwater concentrations of trichloroethene (TCE) entering the PRB were as high as 10670 μg/L. Treatment efficiency ranged from 81 to >99%, and TCE concentrations from <1 μg/L to 165 μg/L were detected within and hydraulically down-gradient of the PRB. After 18 years, effluent TCE concentrations were above the maximum contaminant level (MCL) along segments of the PRB exhibiting upward trending influent TCE. Degradation products included cis-dichloroethene ( cis-DCE), vinyl chloride (VC), ethene, ethane, >C4 compounds, and possibly CO_2(aq) and methane. Abiotic patterns of TCE degradation were indicated by compound-specific stable isotope data and the distribution of degradation products. δ¹³C values of methane within and down-gradient of the PRB varied widely from -94‰ to -16‰; these values cover most of the isotopic range encountered in natural methanogenic systems. Methanogenesis is a sink for inorganic carbon in zerovalent iron PRBs that competes with carbonate mineralization, and this process is important for understanding pore-space clogging and longevity of iron-based PRBs. The carbon isotope signatures of methane and inorganic carbon were consistent with open-system behavior and 22% molar conversion of CO_2(aq) to methane.

Trichloroethene (TCE) hydrodechlorination by NiFe nanoparticles: Influence of aqueous anions on catalytic pathways

Amending bulk and nanoscale zero-valent iron (ZVI) with catalytic metals significantly accelerates hydrodechlorination of groundwater contaminants such as trichloroethene (TCE). The bimetallic design benefits from a strong synergy between Ni and Fe in facilitating the production of active hydrogen for TCE reduction, and it is of research and practical interest to understand the impacts of common groundwater solutes on catalyst and ZVI functionality. In this study, TCE hydrodechlorination reaction was conducted using fresh NiFe bimetallic nanoparticles (NiFe BNPs) and those aged in chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and humic acid solutions with concurrent analysis of carbon fractionation of TCE and its daughter products. The apparent kinetics suggest that the reactivity of NiFe BNPs is relatively stable in pure water and chloride or humic acid solutions, in contrast to significant deactivation observed of PdFe bimetallic particles in similar media. Exposure to phosphate at greater than 0.1 mM led to a severe decrease in TCE reaction rate. The change in kinetic regimes from first to zeroth order with increasing phosphate concentration is consistent with consumption of reactive sites by phosphate. Despite severe kinetic effect, there is no significant shift in TCE ¹³C bulk enrichment factor between the fresh and the phosphate-aged particles. Instead, pronounced retardation of TCE reaction by NiFe BNPs in deuterated water (D₂O) points to the importance of hydrogen spillover in controlling TCE reduction rate by NiFe BNPs, and such process can be strongly affected by groundwater chemistry.

Stable Carbon Isotope Fractionation during Bacterial Acetylene Fermentation: Potential for Life Detection in Hydrocarbon-Rich Volatiles of Icy Planet(oid)s

We report the first study of stable carbon isotope fractionation during microbial fermentation of acetylene (C2H2) in sediments, sediment enrichments, and bacterial cultures. Kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) averaged 3.7 ± 0.5‰ for slurries prepared with sediment collected at an intertidal mudflat in San Francisco Bay and 2.7 ± 0.2‰ for a pure culture of Pelobacter sp. isolated from these sediments. A similar KIE of 1.8 ± 0.7‰ was obtained for methanogenic enrichments derived from sediment collected at freshwater Searsville Lake, California. However, C2H2 uptake by a highly enriched mixed culture (strain SV7) obtained from Searsville Lake sediments resulted in a larger KIE of 9.0 ± 0.7‰. These are modest KIEs when compared with fractionation observed during oxidation of C1 compounds such as methane and methyl halides but are comparable to results obtained with other C2 compounds. These observations may be useful in distinguishing biologically active processes operating at distant locales in the Solar System where C2H2 is present. These locales include the surface of Saturn's largest moon Titan and the vaporous water- and hydrocarbon-rich jets emanating from Enceladus.

KEY WORDS

Acetylene-Fermentation-Isotope fractionation-Enceladus-Life detection.

Effective treatment of alkaline Cr(VI) contaminated leachate using a novel Pd-bionanocatalyst: Impact of electron donor and aqueous geochemistry

Palladium catalysts offer the potential for the effective treatment of a variety of priority reducible pollutants in natural waters. In this study, microbially synthesized magnetite nanoparticles were functionalized with Pd(0), creating a highly reactive, magnetically recoverable, nano-scale catalyst (Pd-BnM). This was then investigated for the treatment of model Cr(VI) contaminated solutions at a range of pH values, and also alkaline Cr(VI) contaminated leachates from chromite ore processing residue (COPR); a contaminant issue of global concern. The sample of COPR used in this study was obtained from a site in Glasgow, UK, where extensive Cr(VI) contamination has been reported. In initial experiments Pd-BnM was supplied with H₂ gas or formate as electron donors, and Cr(VI) removal from model synthetic solutions was quantified at various pH values (2-12). Effective removal was noted at neutral to environmentally relevant alkaline (pH 12) pH values, while the use of formate as an electron donor resulted in loss of performance under acidic conditions (pH 2). Reaction kinetics were then assessed with increasing Pd-BnM loading in both model pH 12 Cr(VI) solutions and the COPR leachate. When formate was used as the electron donor for Pd-BnM, to treat COPR leachate, there was significant inhibition of Cr(VI) removal. In contrast, a promotion of reaction rate, was observed when H₂ was employed. Upon sustained reaction with model Cr(VI) solutions, in the presence of excess electron donor (formate or H₂), appreciable quantities of Cr(VI) were removed before eventual inactivation of the catalyst. Faster onset of inactivation was reported in the COPR leachates, removing 4% and 64% of Cr(VI) observed from model Cr(VI) solutions, when formate and H₂ were used as electron donors, respectively. XAS, TEM-EDX and XPS analysis of the catalysts that had been inactivated in the model solution, showed that the surface had an extensive covering of reduced Cr(III), most likely as a CrOOH phase. COPR reacted catalysts recorded a lower abundance of Cr(III) alongside a high abundance of the leachate components Ca and Si, implicating these elements in the faster onset of inactivation.

Relative contributions of Dehalobacter and zerovalent iron in the degradation of chlorinated methanes

The role of bacteria and zerovalent iron (Fe(0)) in the degradation of chlorinated solvents in subsurface environments is of interest to researchers and remediation practitioners alike. Fe(0) used in reactive iron barriers for groundwater remediation positively interacted with enrichment cultures containing Dehalobacter strains in the transformation of halogenated methanes. Chloroform transformation and dichloromethane formation was up to 8-fold faster and 14 times higher, respectively, when a Dehalobacter-containing enrichment culture was combined with Fe(0) compared with Fe(0) alone. The dichloromethane-fermenting culture transformed dichloromethane up to three times faster with Fe(0) compared to without. Compound-specific isotope analysis was employed to compare abiotic and biotic chloroform and dichloromethane degradation. The isotope enrichment factor for the abiotic chloroform/Fe(0) reaction was large at -29.4 ± 2.1‰, while that for chloroform respiration by Dehalobacter was minimal at -4.3 ± 0.45‰. The combined abiotic/biotic dechlorination was -8.3 ± 0.7‰, confirming the predominance of biotic dechlorination. The enrichment factor for dichloromethane fermentation was -15.5 ± 1.5‰; however, in the presence of Fe(0) the factor increased to -23.5 ± 2.1‰, suggesting multiple mechanisms were contributing to dichloromethane degradation. Together the results show that chlorinated methane-metabolizing organisms introduced into reactive iron barriers can have a significant impact on trichloromethane and dichloromethane degradation and that compound-specific isotope analysis can be employed to distinguish between the biotic and abiotic reactions involved.

Mechanistic approach to multi-element isotope modeling of organic contaminant degradation

We propose a multi-element isotope modeling approach to simultaneously predict the evolution of different isotopes during the transformation of organic contaminants. The isotopic trends of different elements are explicitly simulated by tracking position-specific isotopologues that contain the isotopes located at fractionating positions. Our approach is self-consistent and provides a mechanistic description of different degradation pathways that accounts for the influence of both primary and secondary isotope effects during contaminant degradation. The method is particularly suited to quantitatively describe the isotopic evolution of relatively large organic contaminant molecules. For such compounds, an integrated approach, simultaneously considering all possible isotopologues, would be impractical due to the large number of isotopologues. We apply the proposed modeling approach to the degradation of toluene, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and nitrobenzene observed in previous experimental studies. Our model successfully predicts the multi-element isotope data (both 2D and 3D), and accurately captures the distinct trends observed for different reaction pathways. The proposed approach provides an improved and mechanistic methodology to interpret multi-element isotope data and to predict the extent of multi-element isotope fractionation that goes beyond commonly applied modeling descriptions and simplified methods based on the ratio between bulk enrichment factors or on linear regression in dual-isotope plots.

Carbon isotope fractionation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane during base-catalyzed persulfate treatment

The extent of carbon isotope fractionation during degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA) by a base-catalyzed persulfate (S₂O₈(2-)) treatment system was investigated. Significant destruction of 1,1,1-TCA was observed at a pH of ∼12. An increase in the NaOH:S₂O₈(2-) molar ratio from 0.2:1 to 8:1 enhanced the reaction rate of 1,1,1-TCA by a factor of ∼5 to yield complete (>99.9%) destruction. An average carbon isotope enrichment fractionation factor which was independent of the NaOH:S₂O₈(2-) molar ratio of -7.0 ± 0.2‰ was obtained. This significant carbon isotope fractionation and the lack of dependence on changes in the NaOH:S₂O₈(2-) molar ratio demonstrates that carbon isotope analysis can potentially be used in situ as a performance assessment tool to estimate the degradation effectiveness of 1,1,1-TCA by a base-catalyzed persulfate system.

Carbon isotope fractionation of chlorinated ethenes during oxidation by Fe2+ activated persulfate

The increased use of persulfate (S(2)O(8)(2-)) for in situ chemical oxidation to treat groundwater and soils contaminated by chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds (CHCs) requires unbiased methods to assess treatment performance. Stable carbon isotope analysis offers a potential tool for assessing the in situ treatment performance of persulfate at sites contaminated with CHCs. This study investigated the extent of C isotope fractionation during oxidation of tetrachloroethene (PCE), trichloroethene (TCE) and cis-dichloroethene (cis-DCE) by persulfate activated by ferrous ion (Fe(2+)). An average carbon isotope enrichment factor ε(bulk) of -4.9‰ for PCE, -3.6‰ for TCE and -7.6‰ for cis-DCE were obtained in batch experiments. Variations in the initial S(2)O(8)(2-)/Fe(2+)/CHC molar ratios did not result in any significant differences in carbon isotope fractionation. The occurrence of carbon isotope fractionation during oxidation and the lack of dependence of enrichment factors upon the S(2)O(8)(2-)/Fe(2+)/CHC molar ratio demonstrate that carbon isotope analysis can potentially be used at contaminated sites as an additional technique to estimate treatment efficacy during oxidation of CHCs by Fe(2+) activated persulfate.

Modelling of geochemical and isotopic changes in a column experiment for degradation of TCE by zero-valent iron

Zero-valent iron (ZVI) permeable-reactive barriers have become an increasingly used remediation option for the in situ removal of various organic and inorganic chemicals from contaminated groundwater. In the present study a process-based numerical model for the transport and reactions of chlorinated hydrocarbon in the presence of ZVI has been developed and applied to analyse a comprehensive data set from laboratory-scale flow-through experiments. The model formulation includes a reaction network for the individual sequential and/or parallel transformation of chlorinated hydrocarbons by ZVI, for the resulting geochemical changes such as mineral precipitation, and for the carbon isotope fractionation that occurs during each of the transformation reactions of the organic compounds. The isotopic fractionation was modelled by formulating separate reaction networks for lighter ((12)C) and heavier ((13)C) isotopes. The simulation of a column experiment involving the parallel degradation of TCE by hydrogenolysis and beta-elimination can conclusively reproduce the observed concentration profiles of all collected organic and inorganic data as well as the observed carbon isotope ratios of TCE and its daughter products.

Potential for identifying abiotic chloroalkane degradation mechanisms using carbon isotopic fractionation

Degradation of 1,1- and 1,2-dichloroethane (1,1-DCA, 1,2-DCA) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) on Zn0 was investigated using compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) to measure isotopic fractionation factors for chloroalkane degradation by hydrogenolysis, by alpha-elimination, and by beta-elimination. Significant differences in enrichment factors (epsilon) and associated apparent kinetic isotope effects (AKIE) were measured for these different reaction pathways, suggesting that carbon isotope fractionation by beta-elimination is substantially larger than fractionation by hydrogenolysis or by alpha-elimination. Specifically, for 1,1-DCA, the isotopic composition of the reductive alpha-elimination product (ethane) and the hydrogenolysis product (chloroethane) were the same, indicating that cleavage of a single C-Cl bond was the rate-limiting step in both cases. In contrast, for 1,2-DCA, epsilon = epsilon(reactive position) = -29.7 +/- 1.5% per hundred, and the calculated AKIE (1.03) indicated that beta-elimination was likely concerted, possibly involving two C-Cl bonds simultaneously. Compared to 1,1-DCA hydrogenolysis, the AKIE of 1.01 for hydrogenolysis of CCl4 was much lower, indicating that, for this highly reactive organohalide, mass transfer to the surface was likely partially rate-limiting. These findings are a first step toward delineating the relative contribution of these competing pathways in other abiotic systems such as the degradation of chlorinated ethenes on zerovalent iron (ZVI), iron sulfide, pyrite, or magnetite, and, potentially, toward distinguishing between degradation of chlorinated ethenes by abiotic versus biotic processes.

Pitfalls in compound-specific isotope analysis of environmental samples

In the last decade compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA) has evolved as a valuable technique in the field of environmental science, especially in contaminated site assessment. Instrumentation and methods exist for highly precise measurements of the isotopic composition of organic contaminants even in a very low concentration range. Nevertheless, the determination of precise and accurate isotope data of environmental samples can be a challenge. Since CSIA is gaining more and more popularity in the assessment of in situ biodegradation of organic contaminants, an increasing number of authorities and environmental consulting offices are interested in the application of the method for contaminated site remediation. Because of this, it is important to demonstrate the problems and limitations associated with compound-specific isotope measurements of environmental samples. In this review, potential pitfalls of the analytical procedure are critically discussed and strategies to avoid possible sources of error are provided. In order to maintain the analytical quality and to ensure the basis for reliable stable isotope data, recommendations on groundwater sampling, and sample preservation and storage are given. Important aspects of sample preparation and preconcentration techniques to improve sensitivity are highlighted. Problems related to chromatographic resolution and matrix interference are discussed that have to be considered in order to achieve accurate gas chromatography/isotope ratio mass spectrometry measurements. As a result, the need for a thorough investigation of compound-specific isotope fractionation effects introduced by any step of the overall analytical method by standards with known isotopic composition is emphasized. Finally, we address some important points that have to be considered when interpreting data from field investigations.

Monitoring and evaluation of dechlorination processes using compound-specific chlorine isotope analysis

A simple, quick and sensitive method for the compound-specific stable chlorine isotope analysis of chlorinated solvents by conventional quadrupole gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is presented. With this method, compound-specific stable chlorine isotope ratios of typical chlorinated solvents like tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene (TCE) can be determined quantitatively within 30 min by direct injection. The chlorine isotope ratios of target substances are calculated from the peak areas of several selected molecular ions and fragment ions of the substances, using a set of unique mathematical equations. The precision of the method was demonstrated through reproducibility tests. An internal precision of +/-0.4 per thousand to +/-1.1 per thousand was obtained when analyzing PCE and TCE in the 10-1000 pmol range. The validity of the method was further demonstrated by determining the chlorine isotopic fractionation factor during the reductive dechlorination of TCE in a batch experiment using zero-valent iron. The chlorine isotopic fractionation factor was calculated as 0.9976 +/- 0.0011 with a correlation coefficient of 0.9469 (n = 38). The high correlation coefficient indicates that compound-specific stable chlorine isotope analysis can be performed with sufficient accuracy using conventional quadrupole GC/MS when significant fractionation takes place during a reaction. For the first time, the chlorine isotope fractionation factor of TCE during an abiotic anaerobic dechlorination process was determined using quadrupole GC/MS, without offline sample preparation.

A new concept linking observable stable isotope fractionation to transformation pathways of organic pollutants

Measuring stable isotope fractionation of carbon, hydrogen, and other elements by Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) is a new, innovative approach to assess organic pollutant degradation in the environment. Central to this concept is the Rayleigh equation which relates degradation-induced decreases in concentrations directly to concomitant changes in bulk (= average over the whole compound) isotope ratios. The extent of in situ transformation may therefore be inferred from measured isotope ratios in field samples, provided that an appropriate enrichment factor (epsilonbulk) is known. This epsilonbulk value, however, is usually only valid for a specific compound and for specific degradation conditions. Therefore, a direct comparison of epsilonbulk values for different compounds and for different types of reactions has in general not been feasible. In addition, it is often uncertain how robust and reproducible epsilonbulk values are and how confidently they can be used to quantify contaminant degradation in the field. To improve this situation and to achieve a more in-depth understanding, this critical review aims to relate fundamental insight about kinetic isotope effects (KIE) found in the physico(bio)chemical literature to apparent kinetic isotope effects (AKIE) derived from epsilonbulk values reported in environmentally oriented studies. Starting from basic rate laws, a quite general derivation of the Rayleigh equation is given, resulting in a novel set of simple equations that take into account the effects of (1) nonreacting positions and (2) intramolecular competition and that lead to position-specific AKIE values rather than bulk enrichment factors. Reevaluation of existing epsilonbulk literature values result in consistent ranges of AKIE values that generally are in good agreement with previously published data in the (bio)-chemical literature and are typical of certain degradation reactions (subscripts C and H indicate values for carbon and hydrogen): AKIEc = 1.01-1.03 and AKIEH = 2-23 for oxidation of C-H bonds; AKIEc = 1.03-1.07 for SN2-reactions; AKIEc = 1.02-1.03 for reductive cleavage of C-Cl bonds; AKIEc = 1.00-1.01 for C=C bond epoxidation; AKIEc = 1.02-1.03 for C=C bond oxidation by permanganate. Hence, the evaluation scheme presented bridges a gap between basic and environmental (bio)chemistry and provides insight into factors that control the magnitude of bulk isotope fractionation factors. It also serves as a basis to identify degradation pathways using isotope data. It is shown how such an analysis may be even possible in complex field situations and/or in cases where AKIE values are smaller than intrinsic KIE values, provided that isotope fractionation is measured for two elements simultaneously ("two-dimensional isotope analysis"). Finally, the procedure is used (1) to point outthe possibility of estimating approximate epsilonbulk values for new compounds and (2) to discuss the moderate, but non-negligible variability that may quite generally be associated with epsilonbulk values. Future research is suggested to better understand and take into account the various factors that may cause such variability.

Monitoring trichloroethene remediation at an iron permeable reactive barrier using stable carbon isotopic analysis

Stable carbon isotopic analysis, in combination with compositional analysis, was used to evaluate the performance of an iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB) for the remediation of ground water contaminated with trichloroethene (TCE) at Spill Site 7 (SS7), F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming. Compositional data indicated that although the PRB appeared to be reducing TCE to concentrations below treatment goals within and immediately downgradient of the PRB, concentrations remained higher than expected at wells further downgradient (i.e. >9 m) of the PRB. At two wells downgradient of the PRB, TCE concentrations were comparable to upgradient values, and delta13C values of TCE at these wells were not significantly different than upgradient values. Since the process of sorption/desorption does not significantly fractionate carbon isotope values, this suggests that the TCE observed at these wells is desorbing from local aquifer materials and was present before the PRB was installed. In contrast, three other downgradient wells show significantly more enriched delta13C values compared to the upgradient mean. In addition, delta13C values for the degradation products of TCE, cis-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride, show fractionation patterns expected for the products of the reductive dechlorination of TCE. Since concentrations of both TCE and degradation products drop to below detection limit in wells within the PRB and directly below it, these downgradient chlorinated hydrocarbon concentrations are attributed to desorption from local aquifer material. The carbon isotope values indicate that this dissolved contaminant is subject to local degradation, likely due to in situ microbial activity.

Stable isotope fractionation analysis as a tool to monitor biodegradation in contaminated acquifers

The assessment of biodegradation in contaminated aquifers has become an issue of increasing importance in the recent years. To some extent, this can be related to the acceptance of intrinsic bioremediation or monitored natural attenuation as a means to manage contaminated sites. Among the few existing methods to detect biodegradation in the subsurface, stable isotope fractionation analysis (SIFA) is one of the most promising approaches which is pronounced by the drastically increasing number of applications. This review covers the recent laboratory and field studies assessing biodegradation of contaminants via stable isotope analysis. Stable isotope enrichment factors have been found that vary from no fractionation for dioxygenase reactions converting aromatic hydrocarbons over moderate fractionation by monooxygenase reactions (epsilon=-3 per thousand) and some anaerobic studies on microbial degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons (epsilon=-1.7 per thousand) to larger fractionations by anaerobic dehalogenation reactions of chlorinated solvents (epsilon=between -5 per thousand and -30 per thousand). The different isotope enrichment factors can be related to the respective biochemical reactions. Based on that knowledge, we discuss under what circumstances SIFA can be used for a qualitative or even a quantitative assessment of biodegradation in the environment. In a steadily increasing number of cases, it was possible to explain biodegradation processes in the field based on isotope enrichment factors obtained from laboratory experiments with pure cultures and measured isotope values from the field. The review will focus on the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents as the major contaminants of groundwater. Advances in the instrumental development for stable isotope analysis are only mentioned if it is important for the understanding of the application.

Stable carbon isotope fractionation during aerobic biodegradation of chlorinated ethenes

Stable isotope analysis is recognized as a powerful tool for monitoring, assessing, and validating in-situ bioremediation processes. In this study, kinetic carbon isotope fractionation factors (epsilon) associated with the aerobic biodegradation of vinyl chloride (VC), cis-1,2-dichloroethylene (cDCE), and trichloroethylene (TCE) were examined. Of the three solvents, the largest fractionation effects were observed for biodegradation of VC. Both metabolic and cometabolic VC degradation were studied using Mycobacterium aurum L1 (grown on VC), Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b (grown on methane), Mycobacterium vaccae JOB5 (grown on propane), and two VC enrichment cultures seeded from contaminated soils of Alameda Point and Travis Air Force Base, CA. M. aurum L1 caused the greatest fractionation (epsilon = -5.7) while for the cometabolic cultures, epsilon values ranged from -3.2 to -4.8. VC fractionation patterns for the enrichment cultures were within the range of those observed for the metabolic and cometabolic cultures (epsilon = -4.5 to -5.5). The fractionation for cometabolic degradation of TCE by Me. trichosporium OB3b was low (epsilon = -1.1), while no quantifiable carbon isotopic fractionation was observed during the cometabolic degradation of cDCE. For all three of the tested chlorinated ethenes, isotopic fractionation measured during aerobic degradation was significantly smaller than that reported for anaerobic reductive dechlorination. This study suggests that analysis of compound-specific isotopic fractionation could assist in determining whether aerobic or anaerobic degradation of VC and cDCE predominates in field applications of in-situ bioremediation. In contrast, isotopic fractionation effects associated with metabolic and cometabolic reactions are not sufficiently dissimilar to distinguish these processes in the field.

Effect of iron type on kinetics and carbon isotopic enrichment of chlorinated ethylenes during abiotic reduction on Fe(0)

Four samples of two commercially available iron brands used as substrate for iron permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) were tested for suitability for remediation of perchloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), cis-dichloroethylene (cDCE) and vinyl chloride (VC). Kinetic studies indicate that rates of reaction are enhanced for cDCE and VC on Connelly iron (2.8 x 10(-4) to 6.9 x 10(-4) L/m2/hr and 2.0 x 10(-4) to 9.0 x 10(-4) L/m2/hr, for cDCE and VC, respectively) vs. Peerless iron (3.1 x 10(-5) to 4.6 x 10(-5) L/m2/hr and 2.4 x 10(-5) to 4.1 x 10(-5) L/m2/hr, for cDCE and VC, respectively). Carbon isotopic analyses of the residual chlorinated ethylene (CE) during degradation indicate significant fractionation occurs during reductive dechlorination, with, for example, up to 70% enrichment in carbon isotopic values observed when VC is more than 99% degraded. Comparison of fractionation factors (epsilon) indicates significant differences in carbon isotopic fractionation for different iron types and for different CEs. For the lower CEs (cDCE and VC) in particular, both slower reaction rates and larger fractionation are observed for degradation on Peerless vs. Connelly iron. This is the first study to establish a correlation between the rate of abiotic degradation on Fe(0) and the extent of isotopic fractionation, and the first to confirm consistent differences in these two parameters as a function of iron type. The possibility that these differences in kinetics and carbon isotopic fractionation for cDCE and VC are related to differences in branching ratios between competing hydrogenolysis and beta-elimination reactions during reductive dechlorination on the iron surfaces is discussed.

Dynamic headspace: a single-step extraction for isotopic analysis of microg/L concentrations of dissolved chlorinated ethenes

In this study a dynamic headspace method was developed to measure the carbon isotope values of dissolved chlorinated ethenes at microg/L concentrations. A gas chromatograph/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometer (GC/C/IRMS) was modified to include a headspace extraction system followed by a cryogenic trap. Extracting headspace from a 160 mL vial with 80 mL of aqueous solution and 40 g of NaCl for 8-12 min resulted in accurate and reproducible delta13C values for trichloroethene (TCE) and cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cDCE) at concentrations of 50-75 microg/L. Based on these results a conservative lower limit of quantitation of 38 microg/L can be calculated for these compounds. For more volatile compounds such as tetrachloroethene (PCE) and vinyl chloride (VC), field data analyzed using this method indicate a lower limit of quantitation in the tens of microg /L range.

Carbon isotope fractionation during reductive dechlorination of TCE in batch experiments with iron samples from reactive barriers

Reductive dechlorination of trichloroethene (TCE) by zero-valent iron produces a systematic enrichment of 13C in the remaining substrate that can be described using a Rayleigh model. In this study, fractionation factors for TCE dechlorination with iron samples from two permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) were established in batch experiments. Samples included original unused iron as well as material from a barrier in Belfast after almost 4 years of operation. Despite the variety of samples, carbon isotope fractionations of TCE were remarkably similar and seemed to be independent of iron origin, reaction rate, and formation of precipitates on the iron surfaces. The average enrichment factor for all experiments was -10.1 per thousand (+/- 0.4 per thousand). These results indicate that the enrichment factor provides a powerful tool to monitor the reaction progress, and thus the performance, of an iron-reactive barrier over time. The strong fractionation observed may also serve as a tool to distinguish between insufficient residence time in the wall and a possible bypassing of the wall by the plume, which should result in an unchanged isotopic signature of the TCE. Although further work is necessary to apply this stable isotope method in the field, it has potential to serve as a unique monitoring tool for PRBs based on zero-valent iron.

Monitoring oxidation of chlorinated ethenes by permanganate in groundwater using stable isotopes: laboratory and field studies

Permanganate injection is increasingly applied for in situ destruction of chlorinated ethenes in groundwater. This laboratory and field study demonstrates the roles that carbon isotope analysis can play in the assessment of oxidation of trichloroethene (TCE) by permanganate. In laboratory experiments a strong carbon isotope fractionation was observed during oxidation of TCE with similar isotopic enrichment factors (-25.1 to -26.8 per thousand) for initial KMnO4 concentrations between 67 and 1,250 mg/L. At the field site, a single permanganate injection episode was conducted in a sandy aquifer contaminated with TCE as dense nonaqueous liquid (DNAPL). After injection, enriched delta13C values of up to +204% and elevated Cl- concentrations were observed at distances of up to 4 m from the injection point. Farther away, the Cl- increased without any change in delta13C of TCE suggesting that Cl- was not produced locally but migrated to the sampling point Except for the closest sampling location to the injection point, the delta13C rebounded to the initial 613C again, likely due to dissolution of DNAPL Isotope mass balance calculations made it possible to identify zones where TCE oxidation continued to occur during the rebound phase. The study indicates that delta13C values can be used to assess the dynamics between TCE oxidation and dissolution and to locate zones of oxidation of chlorinated ethenes that cannot be identified from the Cl- distribution alone.

Isotopic fractionation during reductive dechlorination of trichloroethene by zero-valent iron: influence of surface treatment

During reductive dechlorination of trichloroethene (TCE) by zero-valent iron, stable carbon isotopic values of residual TCE fractionate significantly and can be described by a Rayleigh model. This study investigated the effect of observed reaction rate, surface oxidation and iron type on isotopic fractionation of TCE during reductive dechlorination. Variation of observed reaction rate did not produce significant differences in isotopic fractionation in degradation experiments. However, a small influence on isotopic fractionation was observed for experiments using acid-cleaned electrolytic iron versus experiments using autoclaved electrolytic iron, acid-cleaned Peerless cast iron or autoclaved Peerless cast iron. A consistent isotopic enrichment factor of epsilon = -16.7/1000 was determined for all experiments using cast iron, and for the experiments with autoclaved electrolytic iron. Column experiments using 100% cast iron and a 28% cast iron/72% aquifer matrix mixture also resulted in an enrichment factor of -16.9/1000. The consistency in enrichment factors between batch and column systems suggests that isotopic trends observed in batch systems may be extrapolated to flowing systems such as field sites. The fact that significant isotopic fractionation was observed in all experiments implies that isotopic analysis can provide a direct qualitative indication of whether or not reductive dechlorination of TCE by Fe0 is occurring. This evidence may be useful in answering questions which arise at field sites, such as determining whether TCE observed down-gradient of an iron wall remediation scheme is the result of incomplete degradation within the wall, or of the dissolved TCE plume by passing the wall.

Carbon isotope fractionation during permanganate oxidation of chlorinated ethylenes (cDCE, TCE, PCE)

Permanganate oxidation of chlorinated ethylenes is an attractive technique to effect remediation of these important groundwater contaminants. Stable carbon isotope fractionation associated with permanganate oxidation of trichloroethylene (TCE), tetrachloroethylene (PCE), and cis-1,2-dichloroethylene (cDCE) has been measured, to study the possibility of applying stable carbon isotope analysis as a technique to assess the efficacy of remediation implemented by permanganate oxidation. Average carbon isotope fractionation factors of alphaTCE = 0.9786, alphaPCE = 0.9830, and alphacDCE = 0.9789 were obtained, although the fractionation factor for PCE may be interpreted to change from a value of 0.9779-0.9871 during the course of the reaction. The fractionation factors for all three compounds are quite similar, in contrast to the variation of fractionation factors vs degree of chlorination observed for other degradative processes, such as microbial dechlorination. This may be due to a common rate-determining step for permanganate oxidation of all three compounds studied. The large fractionation factors and the relative lack of dependence of the fractionation factors upon other environmental factors (e.g. oxidation rate, presence of multiple contaminants, incomplete oxidation, presence of chloride in solution) indicate that monitoring delta13C values of chlorinated ethylenes during oxidation with permanganate may be a sensitive, and potentially quantitative, technique to investigate the extent of degradation.

Stable carbon isotope fractionation during enhanced in situ bioremediation of trichloroethene

Time-series stable carbon isotope monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) atthe Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory's (INEEL) field site Test Area North (TAN) was conducted during a pilot study to investigate the treatment potential of using lactate to stimulate in situ biologic reductive dechlorination of trichloroethene (TCE). The isotope ratios of TCE and its biodegradation byproducts, cis-dichloroethene (c-DCE), trans-dichloroethene (t-DCE), vinyl chloride (VC), and ethene, in groundwater samples collected during the pilot studywere preconcentrated with a combination of purge-and-trap and cryogenic techniques in order to allow for reproducible isotopic measurements of the low concentrations of these compounds in the samples (down to 0.04 microM, or 5 ppb, of TCE). Compound-specific stable isotope monitoring of chlorinated solvents clearly differentiated between the effects of groundwater transport, dissolution of DNAPL at the source, and enhanced bioremediation. Isotope data from all wells within the zone of lactate influence exhibited large kinetic isotope effects during the reduction of c-DCE to VC and VC to ethene. Despite these large effects, the carbon isotope ratio of ethene in all these wells reached the carbon isotope ratios of the initial dissolved TCE, confirming the complete conversion of dissolved TCEto ethene. Conversely, the carbon isotope ratios of t-DCE were only marginally affected during the study, indicating that minimal biologic degradation of t-DCE was occurring.

Carbon isotope fractionation during aerobic biodegradation of trichloroethene by Burkholderia cepacia G4: a tool to map degradation mechanisms

The strain Burkholderia cepacia G4 aerobically mineralized trichloroethene (TCE) to CO(2) over a time period of approximately 20 h. Three biodegradation experiments were conducted with different bacterial optical densities at 540 nm (OD(540)s) in order to test whether isotope fractionation was consistent. The resulting TCE degradation was 93, 83.8, and 57.2% (i.e., 7.0, 16.2, and 42.8% TCE remaining) at OD(540)s of 2.0, 1.1, and 0.6, respectively. ODs also correlated linearly with zero-order degradation rates (1.99, 1.11, and 0.64 micromol h(-1)). While initial nonequilibrium mass losses of TCE produced only minor carbon isotope shifts (expressed in per mille delta(13)C(VPDB)), they were 57.2, 39.6, and 17.0 per thousand between the initial and final TCE levels for the three experiments, in decreasing order of their OD(540)s. Despite these strong isotope shifts, we found a largely uniform isotope fractionation. The latter is expressed with a Rayleigh enrichment factor, epsilon, and was -18.2 when all experiments were grouped to a common point of 42.8% TCE remaining. Although, decreases of epsilon to -20.7 were observed near complete degradation, our enrichment factors were significantly more negative than those reported for anaerobic dehalogenation of TCE. This indicates typical isotope fractionation for specific enzymatic mechanisms that can help to differentiate between degradation pathways.