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Schlag AK, Aday J, Salam I, Neill JC, Nutt DJ. Adverse effects of psychedelics: From anecdotes and misinformation to systematic science. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:258-272. [PMID: 35107059 PMCID: PMC8905125 DOI: 10.1177/02698811211069100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite an increasing body of research highlighting their efficacy to treat a broad range of medical conditions, psychedelic drugs remain a controversial issue among the public and politicians, tainted by previous stigmatisation and perceptions of risk and danger. OBJECTIVE This narrative review examines the evidence for potential harms of the classic psychedelics by separating anecdotes and misinformation from systematic research. METHODS Taking a high-level perspective, we address both psychological and psychiatric risks, such as abuse liability and potential for dependence, as well as medical harms, including toxicity and overdose. We explore the evidence base for these adverse effects to elucidate which of these harms are based largely on anecdotes versus those that stand up to current scientific scrutiny. RESULTS Our review shows that medical risks are often minimal, and that many - albeit not all - of the persistent negative perceptions of psychological risks are unsupported by the currently available scientific evidence, with the majority of reported adverse effects not being observed in a regulated and/or medical context. CONCLUSIONS This highlights the importance for clinicians and therapists to keep to the highest safety and ethical standards. It is imperative not to be overzealous and to ensure balanced media reporting to avoid future controversies, so that much needed research can continue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne K Schlag
- Drug Science, London, UK,Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK,Department of Geography, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Jacob Aday
- Drug Science, London, UK,Department of Psychology, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | | | - Jo C Neill
- Drug Science, London, UK,Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - David J Nutt
- Drug Science, London, UK,Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK,David J Nutt, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Burlington Danes Building, The Hammersmith Hospital, London W12 0NN, UK.
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Intermittent voluntary ethanol consumption combined with ethanol vapor exposure during adolescence increases drinking and alters other behaviors in adulthood in female and male rats. Alcohol 2018; 73:57-66. [PMID: 30293056 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies suggest that binge drinking is prevalent among adolescents, and may result in neurobehavioral consequences. Animal models provide the experimental control to investigate the consequences of "binge" alcohol exposure during this neurodevelopmental epoch. The current study used an animal model that combined an intermittent pattern of alcohol vapor exposure with voluntary drinking of 20% unsweetened alcohol in adolescent male and female Wistar rats (postnatal day [PD] 22-62), in order to test for potential differences in behavioral changes, ethanol drinking, and hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt/OX) signaling associated with exposure status. Two weeks after discontinuation of the alcohol vapor exposure and drinking during adolescence, rats were tested in adulthood for anxiety-like behaviors using a modified open-field conflict task, pre-pulse facilitation of startle response, light/dark box, and marble burying test. Adolescent alcohol exposure led to overall decreased startle response and increased behavioral arousal in the light/dark chamber during adulthood. Additionally, male rats demonstrated more disinhibited behavior during the conflict task compared to females, and female rats exhibited more rearing behavior during the light/dark test. Rats were also given a 2-bottle choice test that resulted in adolescent alcohol-exposed rats drinking significantly more alcohol in adulthood. Further, female rats also consumed more alcohol in adulthood compared to males. Estrous cycle phase did not account for any of the sex differences observed in the behavioral measures. Histological results indicated that adolescent alcohol did not alter Hcrt/OX-1 or Hcrt/OX-2 receptor mRNA expression levels in adult rats compared to control adults. However, female rats expressed a higher level of Hcrt/OX-1 and Hcrt/OX-2 receptor mRNA in the frontal cortex compared to males. These data suggest that our current model of intermittent ethanol exposure in adolescence can modestly affect both behavior and future consumption of alcohol and that Hcrt/OX receptor signaling differs between males and females.
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Overbye M. An (un)desirable trade of harms? How elite athletes might react to medically supervised ‘doping’ and their considerations of side-effects in this situation. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2018; 55:14-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Prohibition, regulation or laissez faire: The policy trade-offs of cannabis policy. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2018; 56:153-161. [PMID: 29636224 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Trade-offs are central to the cannabis policy debate. Prohibition and strict regulation may help reduce the physical, mental and social harms of cannabis consumption, but at the cost of increasing the harms from illegal markets and reducing consumption benefits. An economic model clarifies how these costs and benefits relate to policy and connects them to observable prices and tax-levels given the assumptions of the analysis. These model- based arguments are related to the ongoing academic policy debate. While some arguments from this literature modify the interpretation of the model (e.g., due to dependence, cognitive biases and market structure), the literature often fails to appropriately account for the magnitude of the policy costs and benefits identified. Taking various caveats into account, the framework indicates that a strict regulation would likely be preferable to prohibition given current estimates of excess harms (externalities and internalities) from cannabis use. While cannabis prohibition appears difficult to justify within an economic regulatory framework, risks from industry influence, policy ratchet effects, and human "decision-making flaws" speak to the need for caution and strong regulation when implementing legal regimes.
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Moxham-Hall VL, Ritter A. Indexes as a Metric for Drug and Alcohol Policy Evaluation and Assessment. WORLD MEDICAL & HEALTH POLICY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/wmh3.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Carbonaro TM, Bradstreet MP, Barrett FS, MacLean KA, Jesse R, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR. Survey study of challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms: Acute and enduring positive and negative consequences. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:1268-1278. [PMID: 27578767 PMCID: PMC5551678 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116662634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Acute and enduring adverse effects of psilocybin have been reported anecdotally, but have not been well characterized. For this study, 1993 individuals (mean age 30 yrs; 78% male) completed an online survey about their single most psychologically difficult or challenging experience (worst "bad trip") after consuming psilocybin mushrooms. Thirty-nine percent rated it among the top five most challenging experiences of his/her lifetime. Eleven percent put self or others at risk of physical harm; factors increasing the likelihood of risk included estimated dose, duration and difficulty of the experience, and absence of physical comfort and social support. Of the respondents, 2.6% behaved in a physically aggressive or violent manner and 2.7% received medical help. Of those whose experience occurred >1 year before, 7.6% sought treatment for enduring psychological symptoms. Three cases appeared associated with onset of enduring psychotic symptoms and three cases with attempted suicide. Multiple regression analysis showed degree of difficulty was positively associated, and duration was negatively associated, with enduring increases in well-being. Difficulty of experience was positively associated with dose. Despite difficulties, 84% endorsed benefiting from the experience. The incidence of risky behavior or enduring psychological distress is extremely low when psilocybin is given in laboratory studies to screened, prepared, and supported participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa M Carbonaro
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew P Bradstreet
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Frederick S Barrett
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Katherine A MacLean
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Robert Jesse
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA,Council on Spiritual Practices, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Roland R Griffiths
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA .,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Sarkar S, Balachander S, Basu D. Perceived harmfulness of substance use: a pilot study. Indian J Community Med 2014; 39:26-9. [PMID: 24696536 PMCID: PMC3968577 DOI: 10.4103/0970-0218.126350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Harm ratings of substances help in understanding the perception toward substance use and formulating policies. Evidence of such harm ratings by substance users and their caregivers provides a clearer perspective of those who experience and observe such harm closely. MATERIALS AND METHODS Substance users and their caregivers were recruited from the Drug De-addiction and Treatment Centre of PGIMER, Chandigarh. Sociodemographic details of the subjects were noted. The subjects were then asked to rate a list of psychoactive preparations according to the harms they thought the preparation caused. The list of substances was developed taking into consideration substance commonly encountered in the geographical area. The harm ratings were transformed on a scale of 0-100. RESULTS All subjects were males and majority of them were educated above 10(th) standard, were not employed and belonged to urban background. Most of them had taken psychoactive substances in their lifetimes but were currently abstinent. Most of the subjects endorsed intravenous drugs as the most harmful, followed by heroin. Beer and chewable tobacco considered the least harmful substances. Greater degree of education was associated with lower harm rankings for heroin, cannabis, dextropropoxyphene, and raw opium; while urban residence was associated with greater harm ratings for cannabis and raw opium. Differences in the harms were perceived for different preparations of the same active compound for alcohol and nicotine. CONCLUSION Harm ratings of substances can be a useful guide while formulating policies and allocating resources. Need for further research extending this pilot study is emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddharth Sarkar
- Department of Psychiatry, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Srinivas Balachander
- Department of Psychiatry, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Debasish Basu
- Department of Psychiatry, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
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Carhart-Harris RL, Nutt DJ. Experienced drug users assess the relative harms and benefits of drugs: a web-based survey. J Psychoactive Drugs 2014; 45:322-8. [PMID: 24377171 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2013.825034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A web-based survey was used to consult the opinions of experienced drug users on matters related to drug harms. We identified a rare sample of 93 drug users with personal experience with 11 different illicit drugs that are widely used in the UK. Asked to assess the relative harms of these drugs, they ranked alcohol and tobacco as the most harmful, and three "Class A" drugs (MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin) and one class B (cannabis) were ranked as the four least harmful drugs. When asked to assess the relative potential for benefit of the 11 drugs, MDMA, LSD, psilocybin, and cannabis were ranked in the top four; and when asked why these drugs are beneficial, rather than simply report hedonic properties, they referred to potential therapeutic applications (e.g., as tools to assist psychotherapy). These results provide a useful insight into the opinions of experienced drug users on a subject about which they have a rare and intimate knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David John Nutt
- Imperial College London, Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, London, UK
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Ritter C, Broers B, Elger BS. Cannabis use in a Swiss male prison: qualitative study exploring detainees' and staffs' perspectives. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2013; 24:573-8. [PMID: 23773686 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies suggest a high prevalence of cannabis use before and during imprisonment, but subjective perspectives of detainees and staff towards its use in prison are lacking. This issue was explored in the framework of an observational study addressing tobacco use in three Swiss prisons in 2009 and 2010 that involved multiple strands (quantitative and qualitative components). This article presents qualitative data on cannabis use collected in one of the settings. METHODS We used in-depth semi-structured interviews with both detainees and staff to explore their attitudes towards cannabis in one post-trial male Swiss prison. We performed specific coding and thematic analysis for cannabis with the support of ATLAS.ti, compared detainees' and staff's opinions, and considered the results with regard to drug policy in prison in general. RESULTS 58 participants (31 male offenders, mean age 35 years, and 27 prison staff, mean age 46 years, 33% female) were interviewed. Detainees estimated the current use of cannabis use to be as high as 80%, and staff 50%. Participants showed similar opinions on effects of cannabis use that were described both at individual and institutional levels: analgesic, calming, self-help to go through the prison experience, relieve stress, facilitate sleep, prevent violence, and social pacifier. They also mentioned negative consequences of cannabis use (sleepiness, decreased perception of danger and social isolation), and dissatisfaction regarding the ongoing ambiguous situation where cannabis is forbidden but detection in the urine was not sanctioned. However, the introduction of a more restrictive regulation induced fear of violence, increased trafficking and a shift to other drug use. CONCLUSION Although illegal, cannabis use is clearly involved in daily life in prison. A clearer and comprehensive policy addressing cannabis is needed, including appropriate measures tailored to individual users. To sustain a calm and safe environment in prison, means other than substance or medication use are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Ritter
- University Centre of Legal Medicine of Geneva and Lausanne, 9, av. de Champel, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Broers
- Unit for Dependency in Primary Care at the Department of Community Health and Primary Care, University Hospitals of Geneva, Faculty of Medicine, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Bernice S Elger
- Head of the Institute of Biomedical Ethics at the University of Basel, Institute for Biomedical Ethics, University of Basel, Bernoullistrasse 28, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
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López-Caneda E, Cadaveira F, Crego A, Doallo S, Corral M, Gómez-Suárez A, Rodríguez Holguín S. Effects of a persistent binge drinking pattern of alcohol consumption in young people: a follow-up study using event-related potentials. Alcohol Alcohol 2013; 48:464-71. [PMID: 23695975 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agt046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The objective of this study was to examine brain activity related to visual attention processes in youths who had maintained a binge drinking (BD) pattern of alcohol consumption for >2 years. METHODS The participants were 57 university students (26 binge drinkers: BDs) with no personal or family history of alcoholism or psychopathological disorders in first-degree relatives. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while participants performed a visual oddball task (twice within a 2-year interval). The latency and amplitude of the P3b component of the ERPs were analysed. RESULTS The P3b amplitude was larger in young BDs than in aged-matched controls at both evaluation times, and the difference was more pronounced after 2 years of maintenance of a BD pattern of consumption. The larger P3b amplitude was associated with an earlier onset of regular drinking and with a greater quantity and intensity of consumption. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that young BDs exhibit anomalies in neural activity involved in attentional/working memory processes, which increase after 2 years of maintenance of BD. This anomalous neural activity may reflect underlying dysfunctions in neurophysiological mechanisms as well as the recruitment of additional attentional/working memory resources to enable the binge drinkers to perform the task adequately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López-Caneda
- Departamento de Psicoloxía Clínica e Psicobioloxía, Facultade de Psicoloxía, Campus Universitario Sur, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
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Lee JP, Antin TM. How do researchers categorize drugs, and how do drug users categorize them? CONTEMPORARY DRUG PROBLEMS 2012; 38:387-428. [PMID: 24431475 PMCID: PMC3888963 DOI: 10.1177/009145091103800304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper considers drug classifications and terms widely used in US survey research, and compares these to classifications and terms used by drug users. We begin with a critical review of drug classification systems, including those oriented to public policy and health services as well as survey research. We then consider the results of a pile sort exercise we conducted with 76 respondents within a mixed method study of Southeast Asian American adolescent and young adult drug users in urban Northern California, USA. We included the pile sort to clarify how respondents handled specific terms which we understood to be related to Ecstasy and methamphetamines. Results of the pile sort were analyzed using graphic layout algorithms as well as content analysis of pile labels. Similar to the national surveys, our respondents consistently differentiated Ecstasy terms from methamphetamine terms. We found high agreement between some specific local terms (thizz, crystal) and popular drug terms, while other terms thought to be mainstream (crank, speed) were reported as unknown by many respondents. In labeling piles, respondents created taxonomies based on consumption method (in particular, pill) as well as the social contexts of use. We conclude by proposing that divergences between drug terms utilized in survey research and those used by drug users may reflect two opposing tendencies: the tendency of survey researchers to utilize standardized language that constructs persons and experiences as relatively homogeneous, varying only within measurable degrees, and the tendency of drug users to utilize specialized language (argot) that reflects their understandings of their experiences as hybrid and diverse. The findings problematize the validity of drug terms and categories used in survey research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliet P. Lee
- Prevention Research Center, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation
| | - Tamar M.J. Antin
- Prevention Research Center, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation
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