Individualist and collectivist values: evidence of compatibility in Iran and the United States

Interpersonal school violence and mother-child communication about violence in relation to empathy in early adolescence

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to interpersonal violence at school has been linked with lower empathy, but less is known about factors that may moderate this relationship. Positive parent-child communication has been associated with higher empathy during adolescence and children of parents that communicate their disapproval of violent behavior respond more peacefully in situations involving violence. Mother-child communication about violence may therefore reduce the risk of desensitization to violent behavior and promote empathy in youth that are frequently exposed to violence. Thus, this study examines whether mother-child communication about violence mitigates the association between exposure to interpersonal school violence and adolescents' empathy.

METHODS

This study addressed this question using a diverse sample of early adolescents from the Southeastern United States in 2003 (N = 642; mean age 11.3 years; 52% male; 76% Black, 22% non-Hispanic White). Adolescents reported on how often they witness or experience interpersonal violence at school and how often they communicate with their mother about violence and how to avoid it. Adolescents also self-reported on their level of empathy.

RESULTS

Results from a hierarchical regression model showed that exposure to interpersonal school violence and lower mother-child communication about violence were uniquely associated with lower empathy, but communication about violence did not moderate the link between interpersonal school violence exposure and empathy. There were no sex differences in these relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to the hypothesis, youth who experience and witness interpersonal violence at school show lower empathy independent of whether youth communicate with their mother about violence and responding to violent situations.

A Comparative Analysis of Emotional Regulation and Maladaptive Symptoms in Adolescents: Insights from Iran and Belgium

(1) Background: Emotional regulation is a critical determinant of adaptive functioning during adolescence, exerting a profound influence on psychological well-being. This study seeks to deepen our understanding of the intricate interplay between emotional regulation and maladaptive psychological symptoms, examining these dynamics through a cross-country comparison. (2) Methods: A total of 224 adolescents, aged 13 to 21 years, from both Iran and Belgium, participated in a cross-sectional comparative study. The study aimed to elucidate the relationship between emotional regulation and mental health functioning, assessing internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and self-injury. A demographic questionnaire, the Emotion Regulation Inventory, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and the Self-Harm Inventory, were administered. Data analysis incorporated correlation assessments, multivariate analysis of variance, and structured equation modeling. (3) Results: The findings revealed a positive association between emotional dysregulation and psychological symptoms across the entire sample. Conversely, emotional suppression, more prevalent in Iran, showed no significant link with maladaptive symptoms but was associated with self-harm in the Belgian sample. Cultural disparities were evident, with internalizing problems more prevalent in Iran and externalizing issues more common in Belgium. (4) Conclusions: Emotional dysregulation emerged as a common factor compromising mental health. It emphasizes the necessity of considering cultural nuances when developing interventional and preventative programs and calls for further research in this field.

A meta-analytic review of the relations between anxiety and empathy

Although theory suggests that empathy may signal a risk for anxiety (Tone & Tully, 2014), the relation between these constructs remains unclear due to the lack of a quantitative synthesis of empirical findings. We addressed this question by conducting three meta-analyses assessing anxiety and general, cognitive, and affective empathy (k's = 70-102 samples; N's = 19,410-25,102 participants). Results suggest that anxiety has a small and significant association with general empathy (r = .08). The relation of clinical anxiety with cognitive empathy was significant but very weak (r = -.03), and small for affective empathy (r = .16). Geographic region and the type of cognitive (e.g., perspective taking, fantasy) and affective empathy (e.g., affective resonance, empathic concern) emerged as moderators. Results suggest that anxiety has a weaker association with general empathy but a stronger association with affective empathy in participants from predominantly collectivistic geographic regions. Further, greater anxiety was weakly associated with less perspective-taking and greater fantasy, and anxiety had a more modest association with empathic concern than other types of affective empathy. Targeting affective empathy (e.g., promoting coping strategies when faced with others' distress) in interventions for anxiety may be beneficial.

The Effect of Collectivism on Mental Health during COVID-19: A Moderated Mediation Model

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is an unprecedented public health emergency of international concern and has caused people to live in constant fear and posed a significant threat to their physical and mental health.

METHOD

The study constructed a moderated mediation model to examine the mediating role of emotion regulation between collectivism and mental health and the moderating role of ego identity in the context of COVID-19. A total of 459 participants were recruited to complete the survey from 30 January to 8 May 2021.The Mental Health in COVID-19 Period Scale, Collectivism Tendency Scale, ERQ, and Identity Status Scale were used for the study.

RESULTS

(1) Expressive suppression played a mediating role in the relationship between collectivism and mental health; (2) The direct effect of collectivism on mental health and the path from expressive suppression to mental health were moderated by ego identity.

CONCLUSION

The effect of collectivism on mental health is indirectly generated through expressive suppression and ego identity showing different patterns of regulation of mental health in different pathways, and its mechanisms and other important influences could be further explored in the future.

Prosocial Video Game Content, Empathy and Cognitive Ability in a Large Sample of Youth

Whether playing video games with prosocial content has an influence on empathy among players remains contentious in the research literature. Some evidence suggests playing cooperatively with other gamers enhances empathy, but data have not conclusively linked prosocial content with empathy. Further, mechanisms of this potential relationship are unclear, and little work has been conducted on how cognitive skills, such as fluid reasoning, may mediate this relationship. The current study examines these relationships with a large sample of 3034 youth (27.2% female, Mage = 11.2; range 8-17 at time 1) in Singapore. Data were considered longitudinally across two years in three waves. Ultimately, no evidence emerged that prosocial content in video games had any impact on empathy related outcomes, nor was fluid reasoning a mediator variable for any relationship. However, variables such as social competence and depression and anxiety symptoms were highly related to empathy measures. This evidence adds to the growing debate in the field that video games may not dramatically alter, whether positively or negatively, the development of emotional and behavioral outcomes for youth.

The Validity and Reliability of Scales to Measure Perceived Movement Skill Competence in Iranian Young Children

The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence scales for Iranian children. In particular, the scales aligned with the second and third versions of the Test of Gross Motor Development and the active play skills. The total sample was 314 children aged 4–8 years (Mage = 6.1 years, SD = 1.1). From this, a random sample of 74 were recruited for face validity. The data from the remaining 240 children were used to establish construct validity using Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling. The data from a second random subsample of 126 children were used to investigate Perceived Movement Skill Competence reliability using ordinal alpha coefficients and intraclass correlations coefficients. The majority of children correctly identified the skills and understood most of the pictures. Internal consistency was very good (from 0.81 to 0.95) for all scales and subscales. Test–retest reliability was excellent with intraclass correlation coefficient values above .85. For construct validity, the initial hypothesized models for three-factor (i.e., locomotor, object control, and play skills) and two-factor (i.e., locomotor and object control) models showed a reasonable fit. The pictorial scales for Perceived Movement Skill Competence are valid and reliable for Iranian young children.

Maternal interactive beliefs and style as predictors of language development in preterm and full term children

Previous research has shown that the quality of mother-child interactions between pre-term children and their mothers tends to be poorer than that of full-term children and their mothers (Forcada-Guex, Pierrehumbert, Borghini, Moessinger & Muller-Nix, 2006). Mothers of pre-term children are less responsive and more intrusive in interactions with their children than mothers of full-term children (Forcada-Guex et al., 2006; Ionio, Lista, Mascheroni, Olivari, Confalonieri, Mastrangelo, Brazzoduro, Balestriero, Banfi, Bonanomi, Bova, Castoldi, Colombo, Introvini & Scelsa, 2017; Laing, McMahon, Ungerer, Taylor, Badawi & Spence, 2010). The current research explored differences between mothers of pre-term and full-term children in terms of interactive beliefs and style, and the potential for language development to be differentially predicted by maternal interactive beliefs and styles in pre-term versus full-term children. Independent t-tests were conducted to compare pre-term and full-term groups in relation to the measures of maternal interactive beliefs and styles. A series of multiple regression analyses were then performed separately for each group to examine the shared and unique contributions of maternal interactive beliefs and styles on full-term versus pre-term children's language development. The results showed that mothers of pre-term children were more intrusive-directive than mothers of full-term children; in contrast, mothers of full-term children were more responsive and supportive-directive in interactions with their children. Moreover, predictors of language development were different in full-term versus pre-term children; in full-term children, maternal supportive beliefs and responsiveness were significant predictors of language development evaluated by both the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development and the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory; in the pre-term group, maternal supportive and directive beliefs, as well as supportive and intrusive directiveness, were significant predictors, with the latter being negatively associated with language development indicators. This research can shed light on how to prevent language delay in children and improve mother-child interactions that contribute to language development, which may in turn improve language development in vulnerable children, children born pre-term in particular.

Assessing DSM-5 Section II Personality Disorders Using the MMPI-2-RF in an Iranian Community Sample

The aim of the current study was to examine the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008) scales in assessing Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth edition (DSM-5) Section II Personality Disorder (PD) symptoms. For this purpose, we first tested the cross-cultural factorial and criterion validity of MMPI-2-RF scales. We used a sample of 536 (327 women and 209 men) community individuals in Tehran, Iran. DSM-5 Section II PD criterion counts were assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5-Screening Personality Questionnaire. Exploratory structural equation modelling analyses revealed that the models reported by Ben-Porath and Tellegen generally fitted the data well. Criterion validity of the MMPI-2-RF scales as well as MMPI-2-RF PDs spectra scales were analyzed with respect to their correlations with DSM-5 Section II PDs, indicating results generally consistent with expectations. Results based on Poisson or Negative binomial regression models indicated that a set of MMPI-2-RF scale hypotheses were supported, with several exceptions that are discussed in detail. These findings have implications for applicability of the MMPI-2-RF across Iranian population.

Sequential Associations Between Communication Acts of Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder and Maternal Verbal Responses

In this study, the sequential associations between child communication acts, including spontaneous communication (SC) and elicited communication (EC), and the types of verbal responses of Iranian mothers (follow-in nondirective, follow-in directive, and redirective responses) were compared between children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and young typically developing (TD) children. Participants were 29 children with ASD aged 3-6 years and 40 TD children aged 13-18 months, matched on expressive vocabulary. Using time-window sequential analysis, maternal verbal responses within a time interval of 3 sec following child communication were examined during 15 min of video-recorded mother-child free play interaction. Mothers in the two groups had broadly similar patterns of response to child communication acts, but some differences in responding to child EC. Across both groups, sequential associations were stronger for maternal follow-in nondirective responses to child SC than for this type of response to child EC, and were stronger for follow-in directive responses to child EC than for follow-in directive responses to child SC. Child EC and SC acts were less likely to be followed by redirective responses than other maternal responses, again across both groups. Finally, mothers of children with ASD were more likely than mothers of TD children to follow-in to child EC with both nondirective and directive responses. Our findings suggest that mothers of children with ASD synchronize their responses with their child's SC acts to the same extent as mothers of TD children, and are more synchronous in responding to their child's EC acts. LAY SUMMARY: This observational study examined how Iranian mothers verbally responded to their children's communication acts, based on whether the children's communication was spontaneous (unprompted) or elicited (prompted by the mother). Mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder or typical development responded to their children's spontaneous communication acts in similar ways, but showed some differences in responding to children's elicited communication. By prompting their children to communicate, mothers create opportunities to give additional verbal responses to their children, which may help to support children's further language development.

Multiple Factors Act Differently in Decision Making in the East Asian Region: Assessing Methods of Self-Construal Using Classification Tree Analysis

Cultural resemblance between Japan and Korea has been assumed, because both East Asian cultures are generally characterized by collectivism. However, subsequent investigations suggest a contrast between the two cultures in the decision-making process, concurrent with a growing call for a more elaborate model of self-construal. This study compares the diverse ways of self-construal underlying decisions regarding invitations between Japan and Korea. We conducted a scenario-based questionnaire in which 377 Japanese and Korean college students made decisions regarding whether to invite someone to an activity, to do the activity alone, or to not do the activity. Utilizing classification tree modeling to analyze multivariate categorical data, we examined the participants’ selected actions according to two factors: interpersonal relations (i.e., whether the other was a friend or an unfamiliar but favored classmate) and the locus of interest in a given situation (i.e., whether the event was of interest to the speaker, hearer, or both parties). The results revealed cultural variations in invitations. Japanese students seem to be interdependent, in that they hesitate to invite others unless they have an assured interpersonal relationship, and tend to wait until they are sure of the other’s interest, even when interested themselves. In contrast, Korean students appear more independent in considering the other’s interest and pursuing their own interest. This study highlights the complex ways of self-construal within the alleged collectivist East Asian region, and also demonstrates the applicability of classification tree analysis in differentiating rank orders of multiple factors influencing people’s decision making across cultures.

How social influence and personality affect users’ social network fatigue and discontinuance behavior

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to focus on understanding how social influence and personality of individuals differentiate between users’ social network fatigue and discontinuance behavior. Furthermore, the most common discontinuance behavior among users was investigated.

Design/methodology/approach

The research model was tested with the data from 163 Instagram users based on online and offline surveys. The partial least squares method was used to test the proposed hypotheses of this study.

Findings

The results indicate that social influence affects users’ discontinuance behavior and social network fatigue. Social network fatigue is greater in users with higher reported social influence compared to those with a lower one. Moreover, in response to social network fatigue, users prefer to keep their activities under control instead of switching to alternative social network sites (SNSs) or a short break in social network activities.

Practical implications

By achieving a better understanding of users’ feeling and behaviors, social network providers may codify their strategies more efficiently.

Originality/value

The study is novel in exploring users’ SNS fatigue and their discontinuance behavior by integrating social influence and personality. The authors defined a new concept of effect of social influence on social network fatigue. Additionally, the authors examined which discontinuance behaviors in individuals were more prevalent.

Personality attributes of Iranian people who stutter

Two recent studies from Australia and Germany have both shown that people who stutter (PWS) have elevated Neuroticism scores on the widely used NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) compared to individuals in a control sample. The two studies showed opposite results, however, for the personality traits Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. One reason for these opposing findings could be that the two studies were conducted in different cultural settings. Given that the effect of different cultural background on the relationship between the NEO-FFI and stuttering remains an open question, we investigated the NEO-FFI scores from 98 PWS and an age- and sex-matched control-group from a less widely studied cultural background (Iran). Overall, the present study showed, in line with a study from Germany, higher Agreeableness, but not Neuroticism, in PWS compared to normally fluent controls. To get further insights into these findings, we also contrasted both samples from Iran with a healthy matched sample from Germany. The resulting cross-cultural differences from these analyses are also discussed in the present paper. Although the present study is limited by a cross-sectional design, and so no causal conclusions can be drawn, the authors discuss whether the replicated elevated Agreeableness scores in PWS might represent a self-defense mechanism to cope with one's own speech handicap.

Knowledge and Belief Understanding Among Iranian and Australian Preschool Children

For more than three decades, considerable research effort has been expended in documenting children’s development of a theory of mind (ToM), or the recognition that behavior is determined by mental states. Studies comparing ToM development in children from Western and non-Western countries have shown differences in patterns of development in various ToM tasks. Specifically, Iranian children are slower than their Australian counterparts to acknowledge that people have diverse beliefs, but at the same time they have relatively advanced understanding of how people acquire new knowledge. In the current study, our aim was to further investigate this cross-cultural pattern by evaluating 3- and 4-year-old Australian and Iranian children’s belief and knowledge understanding across a range of distinct tasks designed to reflect culturally familiar situations. Results confirmed that the Iranian children were faster than the Australians in mastering tasks assessing the understanding of how and when knowledge is acquired. Iranian children, however, lag behind in passing diverse belief tasks. Scores in false belief tasks were comparable across both countries. These findings are discussed with reference to socio-cultural differences across the two countries.

Iranian Mothers’ Disciplinary Strategies and Theory of Mind in Children

Developing an understanding of others’ minds (called theory of mind) has been a topic of considerable research effort. Literature on theory of mind and family influences within Western cultures has documented that children’s understanding of mind is related to parental and family factors such as the number of siblings, discussion about emotions inside the family, and parenting styles. However, research in non-Western cultures is scarce, despite culture playing an important role in shaping parenting practices and family atmosphere. The current study therefore investigated links between mothers’ disciplinary strategies and children’s theory of mind understanding in Iran. Mothers of forty 4- to 6-year-old children responded to six parenting disciplinary situations derived from a study by Ruffman, Perner, and Parkin. In each situation, mothers were presented with a challenging scenario which may occur in daily interactions and were asked what they would do if that the situation happens. Mothers’ answers were coded based on a variety of disciplinary strategies. Children were tested with a battery of theory of mind tasks, including false belief, diverse beliefs, and a Theory of Mind Scale. Results showed that the disciplinary strategy of Silence or avoiding direct encounter with the child was negatively correlated with children’s total theory of mind scores as well as false belief and diverse beliefs understanding. In contrast, the disciplinary strategy focused on Discussion was positively correlated to all theory of mind measures. This study presents important findings to better understand theory of mind development and factors associated with it in a culture different from previously studied samples.

Cultural and Family Influences on Children’s Theory of Mind Development

Over the past three decades, considerable research effort has been expended charting how and when children develop an understanding of others’ minds. Multicultural studies allow us to determine what features of this important cognitive developmental achievement might be universal and what aspects are culturally specific. However, the body of literature in this area is slim and unsystematic. The current study therefore aimed to contrast and compare the sequence through which Western and non-Western children develop a theory of mind (ToM). One hundred sixty-four 3- to 9-year-old children from Australia and Iran were assessed using an expanded ToM Scale. Although children from both cultures had equivalent overall ToM scores, more Australian children showed an understanding of diversity of beliefs and desires whereas more Iranian children understood knowledge access and sarcasm. This study is the first to compare Western and non-Western children’s ToM development with a battery of ToM Scale tasks extended to include sarcasm. The cross-cultural similarities and differences revealed allow a deeper understanding of universal and culturally specific aspects of social-cognitive development.

Empathy in adults with clinical or subclinical depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

Depression is associated with problems in social functioning. Impaired empathic abilities might underlie this association. Empathy is a multidimensional construct and involves both affective and cognitive processes. We reviewed the literature to find out to what extent depression may be associated with abnormal levels of affective and cognitive empathy. We also explored potential gender differences in these associations.

METHODS

We used PsycInfo and Medline to conduct a systematic review of all studies on empathy and depression conducted in individuals with a primary diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD; patient samples) or in individuals with primarily subclinical depressive symptoms (analog samples).

RESULTS

Thirty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. The results indicated that depression was related to one type of affective empathy. Specifically, depression was related to high levels of empathic stress but not to abnormal empathic concern. Further, depression was related to limited cognitive empathy, as indicated by poor perspective taking, theory of mind, and empathic accuracy.

LIMITATIONS

Few studies have considered the variable gender in their design and analyses. Between and within study variation in demographic and clinical variables limits the interpretation of results. Self-report measures of empathy are subjective and vulnerable to bias. Poor performance on the more objective laboratory tasks might partially be explained by the broader cognitive deficits commonly observed in depression. Lastly, because all studies used a cross-sectional design, causality is difficult to establish.

CONCLUSIONS

Empathic abilities may be impaired in depression. The relation between empathy, depression, and gender is unclear. Future studies could use implicit and more ecologically valid measures of empathy. Insight into impaired empathy in depression may not only help explain poor social functioning in MDD but also benefit clinician-patient interactions.

Relationship of perceived stress with depression: complete mediation by perceived control and anxiety in Iran and the United States

This study sought to clarify the importance and cross-cultural relevance of associations between generalized perceived stress and depression. Also tested was the hypothesis that perceived stress would correlate more strongly with anxiety than with depression, whereas control would be more predictive of depression than of anxiety. Relationships between perceived stress, anxiety, depression, and perceived control were examined in samples of Iranian (n = 191) and American (n = 197) undergraduates. Correlations among these variables were generally similar across the two societies. Perceived stress did predict anxiety better than depression, but perceptions of control predicted depression significantly better than anxiety only in the United States. Best fitting structural equation models revealed that anxiety and perceived control completely accounted for the linkage between perceived stress and depression in both societies. An equally acceptable and more parsimonious model described perceived stress as a consequence rather than as an antecedent of anxiety and perceived control. Structural equation models were essentially identical across the two cultures except that internal control displayed a significant negative relationship with anxiety only in Iran. This result seemed to disconfirm any possible suggestion that a supposedly individualistic process like internal control could have no noteworthy role within a presumably more collectivistic Muslim society like Iran. Overall, these data documented the importance of anxiety and perceived control in explaining the perceived stress-depression relationship cross-culturally and therefore questioned the usefulness of perceived stress in predicting depression. Whether this understanding of the stress-depression relationship deserves general acceptance will require additional studies that measure the frequency of stressful life events and that utilize a longitudinal design.

Philosophy, Self-Knowledge, and Personality in Iranian Teachers and Students of Philosophy

Like psychology, philosophy apparently operates from a commitment to the belief that self-knowledge should be a goal of disciplinary and personal development. Iranian teachers and students of philosophy responded to a Philosophical Orientations Scale created for this study that assessed the possible content of a high school philosophy course, along with instruments measuring self-knowledge, need for cognition, the five-factor model, anxiety, depression, and perceived stress. As the authors hypothesized, self-knowledge predicted higher levels of a philosophical orientation, even after controlling for the variance explained by need for cognition and openness to experience. Philosophical orientations and self-knowledge were also correlated with psychological adjustment, and teachers scored higher than students on these two sets of constructs. These data supported the hypothesis that personal and disciplinary interests in an adaptive self-knowledge converge in philosophy.

TWO FACETS OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE, THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL, AND PROMOTIONS AMONG IRANIAN MANAGERS

Reflective and Experiential Self-Knowledge Scales were administered to Iranian managers along with measures of the Five Factor Model, anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and attributional complexity. Experiential Self-Knowledge correlated positively with the number of promotions earned by these managers. Both scales were associated with higher levels of Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Extraversion and, in general, with greater self-reported mental health. Each Self-Knowledge Scale displayed evidence of incremental validity. These data confirmed that the Reflective and Experiential Self-Knowledge Scales deserve additional research attention.