The relationship between Eysenck's P–E–N model of personality and traits delineating personality disorder

Locating the Dark Triad in a Multidimensional Personality Space

The Dark Triad traits of Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and Narcissism should be clearly recognizable within a multidimensional personality space. Two such personality spaces were investigated in this study: HEXACO (Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience); and the Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA-PQ) space (Extraversion, Neuroticism, Activity, Sensation Seeking, and Aggressiveness). Our sample comprised 289 participants (137 males, 145 females, 7 unspecified) who completed these three questionnaires: HEXACO-60, ZKA-PQ/SF, and the SD3, assessing the Dark Triad. We reduced the dimensionality of each space to that of a 2D representation using Smallest Space Analysis (SSA). Three research questions guided the data analysis: (a) Do the HEXACO and ZKA-PQ SSA spaces conform to the structure of a radex? (b) Will these spaces remain invariant following the entry of the Dark Triad traits into the analyses? (c) Where will the Dark Triad traits be located in each SSA space? For ZKA-PQ space, the structure was clearly indicative of a radex, both prior to entering the Dark Triad traits into the analysis, and subsequent to this. Psychopathy and Machiavellianism were in close proximity in the Aggressiveness region; Narcissism was positioned at the common origin. In contrast, HEXACO space did not conform to a radex; furthermore, the presence of the Dark Triad traits distorts this 2D SSA space.

Machiavellianism and personality disorder: their relationship in the mirror of interpersonal attitudes

Introduction: Social and personality psychologists have described Machiavellianism as a pragmatic, callous-unemotional, exploitative and manipulative attitude towards others. Several former studies linked Machiavellian personality traits and interpersonal problems or personality dysfunction. Aim: The aim of this study was to reveal the connection between Machiavellianism and interpersonal problems that are characteristic of personality disorders. Method: 252 participants (146 females and 106 males, aged 32.46±5.39 years, mean±SD) filled out self-report measures of Machiavellianism and personality disorder related interpersonal problems. Results: There was a medium strength relationships between Machiavellianism and several interpersonal problems. Aggression and ambivalence proved to be significant predictors of Machiavellian personality traits. Conclusions: Results are discussed in relation to the patient–therapist bond. Orv. Hetil., 2014, 155(39), 1584–1588.

The hierarchical structure of the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology (DAPP-BQ)

Hierarchical personality models have the potential to identify common and specific components of DSM-IV personality disorders (PDs), and may offer a solution for the re-tooling of personality pathology in future versions of the DSM. In this paper, we examined the hierarchical structure of the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ; Livesley & Jackson, 2009) and the capacity of various trait components at different levels to predict DSM-IV PD symptoms. Participants were 275 psychiatric outpatients and 365 undergraduate students. Goldberg's (2006) bass-ackwards method was used to investigate the hierarchical structure of the DAPP-BQ. The predictive capacity of hierarchy components was assessed. We found that Level 5 of the hierarchy enhanced the capacity of the DAPP-BQ for predicting DSM PD symptoms beyond a four-factor structure, particularly for borderline PD.

Incremental effect for antisocial personality disorder genetic risk combining 5-HTTLPR and 5-HTTVNTR polymorphisms

As the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4 or 5-HTT) is a key regulator of central serotonergic activity, several association studies between Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) and the SLC6A4 polymorphisms have been conducted in the last decade. In the present study, the role of both 5-HTTLPR and 5-HTTVNTR polymorphisms of the SLC6A4 gene in APD is investigated. A sample of 147 male inmates was analyzed. APD was assessed by Aluja's Antisocial Personality Disorder Scale, a measure that correlates 0.73 with the dimensional score of DSM-IV APD and 0.62 with factor II of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Inmates presenting both 5-HTTLPR S/S+S/L and 5-HTTVNTR 12/12 had a higher risk of being classified in the APD group (Odds ratio=3.48). The results also showed that the genotype and haplotype distribution was more dissimilar when extreme groups were compared with odds ratios up to 6.50. Our results supported that, in addition to the widely investigated 5-HTTLPR polymorphism, the 5-HTTVNTR polymorphism might be an interesting candidate for association studies with APD. Results also suggested that previous failures to replicate the association between serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms and APD, or similar phenotypes, could have been due to an under-representation of extremely high APD subjects in the samples analyzed.

Personality judgment and personality pathology: self-other agreement in adolescents with conduct disorder

We examine two issues linking personality pathology and judgment of traits within the Five-Factor Model of personality. We hypothesize that pathology moderates self-other agreement--"target" participants with pathology should be less judgable than participants without pathology. In addition, we hypothesize that pathology could partially produce agreement across a variety of traits, particularly those traits fundamental to the pathology. In an adolescent sample including a group with Conduct Disorder (CD) and a Control group, we examine agreement between adolescents' self-reports and their mothers' informant reports. Using trait-centered and person-centered perspectives, we find support for both hypotheses. Results have implications for understanding the processes affecting personality judgment, for increasing integration of traditional personality research and personality pathology, and for personality assessment.

Personality differences in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and controls

BACKGROUND

Differences in personality profiles were examined between children who differed in their co-morbidity of externalizing disorders: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD).

METHODS

11- and 17-year-old male and female twins from a community sample were categorized as ADHD only, CD only, co-morbid CD-ADHD, and controls (no ADHD or CD) based on threshold and subthreshold CD and ADHD diagnoses assessed with structured interviews. Multivariate analyses were used to identify patterns of personality that differentiate these four diagnostic groups. It was hypothesized that significant differences would be found in the pattern of personality variables between participants in the co-morbid group, compared to the other three groups, and that these differences would hold across developmental periods.

RESULTS

As expected, the co-morbid group had a pattern of personality marked by higher Negative Emotionality and lower Constraint than the other diagnostic groups. This pattern was evidenced across gender and age cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

An extreme personality profile may represent a liability toward the occurrence of ADHD and CD with more extreme profiles contributing to the occurrence of both disorders among boys and girls. Implications for treatment planning and theoretical development are discussed.

High prevalence of personality disorders among healthy volunteers for research: implications for control group bias

Individuals who volunteer as control subjects for clinical studies are regularly screened for Axis I diagnoses, but seldom screened for Axis II disorders. This study examined the relative rates of Axis II diagnoses among 341 volunteers passing an initial telephone screen for entry into biological research studies. Axis I and II diagnoses by DSM-IV were assigned by best estimate after structured clinical interview, and subjects were categorized into one of three groups based on their diagnostic profiles: (1) volunteers without lifetime Axis I or II diagnoses ("healthy controls"), (2) personality-disordered volunteers without any history of Axis I pathology, and (3) personality-disordered volunteers with past (but not current) Axis I pathology. The results revealed a high prevalence of personality disorders (44.4%) among these volunteers. Several clinically relevant self-report inventories were used to demonstrate important characterological differences between the three comparison groups. Although inventory results demonstrated multiple differences between all three groups, most scales revealed differences between healthy controls and the two personality-disordered groups (with or without lifetime Axis I diagnoses), suggesting that most of the variance was accounted for by the presence or absence of an Axis II disorder, not a past Axis I disorder. These results suggest that personality-disordered volunteers may bias a control group due to the infrequent screening for Axis II disorders among volunteers for medical and psychiatric research. Implications are discussed for routine Axis II screening of volunteers for research with specific diagnostic instruments.

Dimensional models of personality disorder: coverage and cutoffs

Two major challenges that must be addressed by dimensional models, if they are to be considered viable alternatives to the present categorical system for diagnosing personality disorders, involve the issues of coverage and cutoffs. Several dimensional models of personality and personality pathology are evaluated with these issues in mind. There is growing consensus for the relevance of at least four higher-order domains of personality functioning that are clearly related to personality pathology: neuroticism/negative affectivity/emotional dysregulation, extraversion/positive emotionality, dissocial/antagonistic behavior, and constraint/compulsivity/conscientiousness. A proposal for developing a dimensionally based diagnostic system for personality disorders incorporating these higher-order traits is offered.

Categorical and Dimensional Models of Personality Disorder

We review major categorical and dimensional models of personality pathology, highlighting advantages and disadvantages of these approaches. Several analytic and methodological approaches to the question of the categorical versus dimensional status of constructs are discussed, including taxometric analyses, latent class analyses, and multivariate genetic analyses. Based on our review, we advocate a dimensional approach to classifying personality pathology. There is converging evidence that four major domains of personality are relevant to personality pathology: neuroticism/negative affectivity/emotional dysregulation; extraversion/positive emotionality; dissocial/antagonistic behavior; and constraint/compulsivity/conscientiousness. Finally, we discuss how dimensional approaches might be integrated into the diagnostic system, as well as some of the major issues that must be addressed in order for dimensional approaches to gain wide acceptance.

Personality and psychopathology: working toward the bigger picture

There are systematic and meaningful links among normal and abnormal personality traits and Axis I and II constructs from the DSM. Nevertheless, much research in this area focuses on pairs of constructs (e.g., the link between personality traits and a specific Axis I disorder), rather than on the broader multivariate structure of the personality-psychopathology domain. We underscore the need for this broader perspective, a perspective that would transcend largely artificial boundaries between current constructs (e.g., normal and abnormal personality). We outline our approach to research from this perspective and we emphasize the internalizing (mood and anxiety) and externalizing (substance use and antisocial behavior) spectra as promising foci for initial research on the joint structure of personality and psychopathology.

Dependency, impulsivity, and self-harm: traits hypothesized to underlie the association between cluster B personality and substance use disorders

Cluster B personality disorders (PDs) (i.e., antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic) typically show a high degree of comorbidity with substance use disorders (SUDs). Previous research suggests that the broad-based personality domains of Disinhibition and Negative Temperament/Neuroticism may be common factors to both types of disorders. Using a two-phase process (i.e., screening and follow-up), this study examined three lower-order personality traits (i.e., dependency, impulsivity, and self-harm) that fall within the Disinhibition and Neuroticism domains. The study evaluated the hypotheses that these traits (a) are related both to cluster B PDs and to SUDs; and (b) underlie the association between the two types of disorders. Results indicate that impulsivity and self-harm play a significant role in cluster B PDs and SUDs, as well as in their association with each other. However, dependency was not associated with either type of disorder. These results indicate that sets of individual traits can be of significant utility in understanding the comorbidity between PDs and SUDs.

Heritability of social anxiety-related concerns and personality characteristics: a twin study

Negative evaluation fears figure prominently in the cognitive psychology of patients with social phobia. In this study, we examine the heritability of negative evaluation fears by using a twin sample. The authors also examine the relationships between negative evaluation fears and personality dimensions relevant to social phobia. Scores on the brief version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE) were examined in a sample of 437 (245 monozygotic and 192 dizygotic) twin pairs. Biometrical model fitting was conducted by using standard statistical methods. Genetic and environmental correlations with personality dimensions (from the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire) were also calculated. Broad heritability estimate of the BFNE was 48%. Additive genetic effects and unique environmental effects emerged as the primary influences on negative evaluation fears. Genetic correlations between BFNE scores and the submissiveness, anxiousness, and social avoidance facets of the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire were high (r(g) =.78 to.80). A cognitive dimension central to the phenomenology (and, perhaps, cause) of social phobia, the fear of being negatively evaluated, is moderately heritable. Moreover, the same genes that influence negative evaluation fears appear to influence a cluster of anxiety-related personality characteristics. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.

State and trait anxiety revisited

State and trait anxiety theory and assessment are reviewed. The person (trait anxiety) and the situation are important in determining levels of state anxiety. The facet of trait anxiety and the stressful situation must be congruent in order to evoke increases in state anxiety. The multidimensional interaction model is reviewed and empirical research is presented. A discussion of anxiety viewed in a dimensional versus a categorical conceptualization is presented. Misconceptions regarding the multidimensionality of trait anxiety are discussed. Finally, it is concluded that anxiety should be viewed as a dimensional construct and that the multidimensionality of state and trait anxiety should be considered in both theory and assessment.