Psychoneuroendocrinology of depression. Prolactin

Effect of positive emotion intervention during late pregnancy on improving colostrum secretion: a randomised control trial protocol

INTRODUCTION

Though evidence has revealed the beneficial effects of cognitive improvement interventions on breastfeeding, the effect of psychological interventions has rarely been studied. This study aims to test whether promoting a positive emotion intervention, 'Three Good Things' intervention, during the last trimester of pregnancy can enhance early colostrum secretion and breastfeeding behaviours by modulating the hormones associated with lactation (prolactin and insulin-like growth factor I). We will attempt to promote exclusive breastfeeding by using physiological behavioural measures.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This study is designed as a randomised controlled trial conducted in the Women's Hospital School of Medicine at Zhejiang University and the Wuyi First People's Hospital. The participants will be randomly divided into two groups using stratified random grouping: the intervention group will receive 'Three Good Things' intervention, while the control group will write about three things that come to mind first. These interventions will be continued from enrolment until the day of delivery. Maternal blood hormone levels will be tested approaching delivery and the following day after birth. Behavioural information about breastfeeding will be collected 1 week afterwards.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study has been approved by the Ethics Committees of the Women's Hospital School of Medicine at Zhejiang University and the Wuyi First People's Hospital. Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals or international academic conferences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ChiCTR2000038849.

Sex differences in peripheral monoamine transmitter and related hormone levels in chronic stress mice with a depression-like phenotype

Backgrounds

Chronic stress could induce depression-like phenotype in animal models. Previous data showed that sex differences exist after chronic stress model establishment, however, the detailed information about the difference of blood biochemical indexes is not clear. In this study, we aim to supply comparison of monoamine transmitters and related hormone markers in serum between male and female depressed mice, and in order to better understand the sex difference in transmitters and hormone levels in depression occurrence and development.

Methods

Sixty C57BL/6 mice (both male and female) were divided into two groups by gender. Same gender mice were then divided randomly into the non-treated control group and chronic stress group which was exposed to 8 weeks of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). Depression-like behavior was assessed with open-field test and sucrose preference test. Blood sample was collected and monoamine transmitter and related hormone in serum were measured by ELISA.

Results

The depression-like phenotype mice model was established successfully after 8 weeks of chronic stress. The locomotion activity scores in male stressed mice declined more than that in female stressed mice, while the exploratory behavior scores in female stressed mice declined more than that in male stressed mice. Compared to non-treated control group mice, mice in the chronic stress group in response to stress showed greater declines in monoamine transmitters (5-HT, dopamine, norepinephrine) and sex hormones (androgen, estrogen, oxytocin and prolactin), while stress hormones (adrenaline, corticosterone and ACTH) were significantly increased. The decrease of norepinephrine, androgen and estrogen in female stressed mice was greater than in male stressed mice, whereas the 5-HT and oxytocin in male stressed mice decreased more than in female stressed mice, and the corticosterone in male stressed mice increased more than in female stressed mice.

Conclusion

Sex differences of monoamine transmitter and related hormone levels in serum occurred in chronic stress induced depression-like phenotype mice model. It may provide a useful reference to guide precise antidepressant treatment in different gender population in clinical care.

Sexual function and depressive symptoms in men with hypoprolactinaemia secondary to overtreatment of prolactin excess: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Low prolactin levels have been found to impair libido and arousal, as well as to reduce wellbeing in young women.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether drug-induced hypoprolactinaemia affects male sexual function and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

The study population consisted of three groups of young and middle-aged men. Two groups were treated with dopamine agonists because of previous hyperprolactinaemia but differed in current prolactin levels, which were <3ng/ml (n=12; group 1) or within the reference range (3-20ng/ml) (n=20; group 2). The control group (group 3) included 24 dopamine agonist-naïve normoprolactinaemic men. During the study, doses of dopaminergic agents in group 1 were reduced by 25-50% compared to doses before the start of the study. Circulating levels of prolactin, testosterone, free calculated testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate, oestradiol and gonadotropins were measured upon enrolment in the study and six months later. Moreover, at the beginning and the end of the study, all men enrolled completed questionnaires assessing sexual functioning (IIEF-15) and depressive symptoms (BDI-II).

RESULTS

Group 1 differed from groups 2 and 3 in domain scores for sexual desire and erectile function, and in the overall BDI-II score. It was also characterised by lower levels of total testosterone and calculated free testosterone. Reduction of drug doses normalised sexual desire and erectile function, reduced BDI-II scores and increased prolactin as well as total and free calculated testosterone. Groups 2 and 3 did not differ from each other in sexual functioning, depressive symptoms or hormone levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained indicate that men with dopamine agonist-induced hypoprolactinaemia are characterised by impaired sexual functioning and reduced wellbeing. These disturbances are a consequence of subnormal prolactin levels and do not seem to reflect adverse effects of dopamine agonists.

Vortioxetine-Induced Amenorrhea: A Case Report

BACKGROUND

Vortioxetine is a novel multimodal antidepressant for the treatment of major depressive disorders and is widely used in clinical practice. Vortioxetine has a safe profile. However, there are case reports of other adverse effects in the literature. In this article, a case of amenorrhea due to vortioxetine is presented.

CASE

The patient is 36 years old, married, female, and is an anesthesiologist. She applied to the psychiatric outpatient clinic with symptoms of major depression. Vortioxetine was initiated at 10 mg/d and then gradually increased to 20 mg/d. She had regular menstruation until now. However, she did not menstruate after taking vortioxetine. The patient used vortioxetine for 3 months and never had a period. Pregnancy test and other tests to investigate organic etiology were normal. Two weeks after discontinuation of vortioxetine, the patient had a menstrual period.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research is needed on the relationship and possible mechanisms between vortioxetine and amenorrhea.

Sexual function and depressive symptoms in men with hypoprolactinaemia secondary to overtreatment of prolactin excess: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Low prolactin levels have been found to impair libido and arousal, as well as to reduce wellbeing in young women.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether drug-induced hypoprolactinaemia affects male sexual function and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

The study population consisted of three groups of young and middle-aged men. Two groups were treated with dopamine agonists because of previous hyperprolactinaemia but differed in current prolactin levels, which were <3ng/ml (n=12; group 1) or within the reference range (3-20ng/ml) (n=20; group 2). The control group (group 3) included 24 dopamine agonist-naïve normoprolactinaemic men. During the study, doses of dopaminergic agents in group 1 were reduced by 25-50% compared to doses before the start of the study. Circulating levels of prolactin, testosterone, free calculated testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate, oestradiol and gonadotropins were measured upon enrolment in the study and six months later. Moreover, at the beginning and the end of the study, all men enrolled completed questionnaires assessing sexual functioning (IIEF-15) and depressive symptoms (BDI-II).

RESULTS

Group 1 differed from groups 2 and 3 in domain scores for sexual desire and erectile function, and in the overall BDI-II score. It was also characterised by lower levels of total testosterone and calculated free testosterone. Reduction of drug doses normalised sexual desire and erectile function, reduced BDI-II scores and increased prolactin as well as total and free calculated testosterone. Groups 2 and 3 did not differ from each other in sexual functioning, depressive symptoms or hormone levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained indicate that men with dopamine agonist-induced hypoprolactinaemia are characterised by impaired sexual functioning and reduced wellbeing. These disturbances are a consequence of subnormal prolactin levels and do not seem to reflect adverse effects of dopamine agonists.

Reduced plasma Fetuin-A is a promising biomarker of depression in the elderly

Depression affects 7% of the elderly population, and it often remains misdiagnosed or untreated. Peripheral biomarkers might aid clinicians by allowing more accurate and well-timed recognition of the disease. We sought to determine if plasma protein levels predict the severity of depressive symptomatology or distinguish patients from healthy individuals. The severity of depressive symptoms and global cognitive functioning were assessed by the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in 152 elderly subjects, 76 of which with major depressive disorder (MDD). Plasma levels of 24 proteins were measured by multiplexing and analyzed as continuous predictors or dichotomized using the median value. The association between individual plasma proteins and MDD risk or depressive symptoms severity was investigated using multiple logistic and linear regressions including relevant covariates. Sensitivity analyses were performed excluding cognitively impaired individuals or non-acute patients with MDD. After adjusting for possible confounders and false discovery rate (FDR) correction, we found lower Fetuin-A levels in MDD patients vs. controls (p_FDR = 1.95 × 10^-6). This result was confirmed by the sensitivity and dichotomized analyses. Lower prolactin (PRL) levels predicted more severe depressive symptoms in acute MDD patients (p_FDR = 0.024). Fetuin-A is a promising biomarker of MDD in the elderly as this protein was negatively associated with the disorder in our sample, regardless of the global cognitive functioning. Lower PRL levels may be a peripheral signature of impaired neuroprotective processes and serotoninergic neurotransmission in more severely depressed patients.

Functional hypothalamic and drug-induced amenorrhea: an overview

BACKGROUND

Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA) is a form of chronic anovulation not due to identifiable organic causes and with adverse health consequences. The identification of women with this disorder or the precocious identification of women at risk is based on the knowledge of lifestyle risk factors or behaviors such as stress, weight loss, and excessive physical exercise that are known to negatively impact gonadal axis activity.

METHODS

In this overview, we described the most common forms of FHA, in particular stress-induced amenorrhea and overtraining-induced amenorrhea. In addition, although its mechanisms can differ from those involved in FHA, we reviewed the available literature on drug-induced amenorrhea, highlighting the clear connection between this condition and psychoactive drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants and anti-epilectics thus raising concern about the role that the abuse of substances such as opioids or alcohol can possibly have on the growing unexplained infertility of the female population.

Plasma prolactin levels are associated with the severity of illness in drug-naive first-episode psychosis female patients

Patients with schizophrenia frequently present hyperprolactinemia as a consequence of antipsychotic treatment. However, an increase in circulating prolactin levels has also been shown in patients without previous treatment. Our objective was to compare prolactin levels between antipsychotic-naive first-episode psychosis (AN-FEP) patients and healthy controls (HC). As part of an FEP program (Programa Asistencial Fases Iniciales de Psicosis [PAFIP]), 270 AN-FEP patients and 153 HC were eligible for this study. Serum prolactin levels were measured by an automated immunochemiluminescent assay. Subjects' sex and having an AN-FEP diagnosis both had an effect on prolactin levels, with higher levels in women than in men, and in AN-FEP patients than in HC. Moreover, plasma prolactin levels showed a negative correlation with the SAPS scores in AN-FEP female patients. AN-FEP patients have increased levels of prolactin, which might be stress-induced. This, together with the association of higher prolactin with a lower severity of the disease, suggests that prolactin might play a neuroprotective role, especially in women.

Sertraline-Related Amenorrhea in an Adolescent

Amenorrhea is one of the clinical consequences of hyperprolactinemia. Although symptomatic hyperprolactinemia is among the well-described adverse reactions of antipsychotic agents, it may also be reported with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Hereby, we present a case of sertraline-related hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea in an adolescent. Amenorrhea occurred 2 months after starting sertraline, and menstrual cycle restored after stopping the treatment.

Escitalopram-Induced Amenorrhea and False Positive Urine Pregnancy Test

Escitalopram is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. A 34-year-old female patient with major depressive disorder developed amenorrhea and had a false-positive urine pregnancy test after initiation of escitalopram treatment. To our knowledge, no published case report of amenorrhea and false-positive urine pregnancy tests in women taking escitalopram exists. This case report suggests that women of child-bearing age should be carefully monitored for amenorrhea while they are on an antidepressant treatment regimen.

Rising Trend of Use of Antidepressants Induced Non- Puerperal Lactation: A Case Report

Non puerperal lactation or galactorrhea is a well known side effect of antipsychotic drugs but has been infrequently described with the use of antidepressants. In past few decades, there have been emerging trend of isolated case reports of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors induced non puerperal lactation. We report a case of non puerperal lactation following usage of second generation tricyclic antidepressant, nortriptyline and resolution on withdrawing the drug. Literature review has been done for antidepressant induced galactorrhea to understand the current trends, putative mechanism as different from one implicated for antipsychotics and its clinical utility.

Emerging Hyperprolactinemic Galactorrhea in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder with a Stable Dose of Fluoxetine

While fluoxetine (FXT) is a frequently prescribed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), with few major side-effects; altered serotonergic transmissions in hypothalamic pathways might lead to a distressing, and often embarrassing, manifestation of galactorrhea by altering prolactin release in those on FXT. We report here a case of FXT-induced hyperprolactinemic galactorrhea developing late into treatment on a stable regimen, who responded well to subsequent replacement with sertraline. Based on present finding, we suggest that while SSRIs may share similar mechanisms of action, there exist individual differences in their effects on prolactin secretion pathways.

A new logical insight and putative mechanism behind fluoxetine-induced amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea in a case series

With the exception of fluoxetine, all selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) commonly cause hyperprolactinemia through presynaptic mechanisms indirectly via 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-mediated inhibition of tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons. However, there is little insight regarding the mechanisms by which fluoxetine causes hyperprolactinemia via the postsynaptic pathway. In this text, analysis of five spontaneously reported clinical cases of hyperprolactinemia resulting in overt symptoms of amenorrhea with or without galactorrhea, were scrupulously analyzed after meticulously correlating relevant literature and an attempt was made to explore the putative postsynaptic pathway of fluoxetine inducing hyperprolactinemia. Hypothetically, serotonin regulates prolactin release either by increasing oxytocin (OT) level via direct stimulation of vasoactitive intestinal protein (VIP) or indirectly through stimulation of GABAergic neurons. The pharmacodynamic exception and pharmacokinetic aspect of fluoxetine are highlighted to address the regulation of prolactin release via serotonergic pathway, either directly through stimulation of prolactin releasing factors (PRFs) VIP and OT via 5-HT2A receptors predominantly on PVN (neurosecretory magnocellular cell) or through induction of 5-HT1A-mediated direct and indirect GABAergic actions. Prospective molecular and pharmacogenetic studies are warranted to visualize how fluoxetine regulate neuroendocrine system and cause adverse consequences, which in turn may explore new ways of approach of drug development by targeting the respective metabolic pathways to mitigate these adverse impacts.

Sertraline-induced galactorrhea: case report and review of cases reported with other SSRIs

There is limited literature reporting galactorrhea with antidepressants including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In this case report, I present a case of a young female who developed galactorrhea with sertraline, which improved on discontinuation of sertraline. Computer-assisted searches on galactorrhea with SSRIs yielded 23 cases, mostly with escitalopram and paroxetine and rarely with fluoxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline, and it may be much more frequent than recognized.

Distinct dopaminergic personality patterns in patients with prolactinomas: a comparison with nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma patients and age- and gender-matched controls

INTRODUCTION

Personality patterns such as extraversion and novelty seeking have been associated with an altered dopaminergic activity in healthy subjects. Patients with prolactinomas have been described as exhibiting an altered dopaminergic tone and are often treated with dopamine agonists. Little is known about the personality traits of this patient group. Hence, we aimed at examining whether patients with prolactinomas exhibit modified personality patterns compared to patients with nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas and healthy controls.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 86 patients with prolactinomas and 58 patients with nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas (NFPA) were compared with 172 mentally healthy age- and gender-matched controls. To assess personality traits, standardized personality questionnaires (Eysenck personality questionnaire-EPQ-RK and Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire devised by Cloninger-TPQ) were administered.

RESULTS

Patients with either prolactinomas or NFPA showed a distinct personality profile compared to the normal population, characterized by increased neuroticism and they also answered in a socially desirable mode. On harm-avoidant total and subscales, they presented with a higher fear of uncertainty and also increased fatigability and asthenia. The prolactinoma patients, when contrasted with the 'clinical' control group of patients with NFPA and after post hoc tests for multiple comparisons following the Bonferroni-Holm procedure showed significantly reduced extraversion (p = 0.044) and increased shyness with strangers (p = 0.044), tending to be more neurotic and present lower scores in the novelty seeking subscale impulsiveness.

CONCLUSION

This is, to our knowledge, the first study providing new evidence of an altered personality profile of prolactinoma patients which might affect the patient-doctor relationship, treatment and patient's quality of life.

Chronic escitalopram treatment restores spatial learning, monoamine levels, and hippocampal long-term potentiation in an animal model of depression

RATIONALE

The neural basis of depression-associated cognitive impairment remains poorly understood, and the effect of antidepressants on learning and synaptic plasticity in animal models of depression is unknown. In our previous study, learning was impaired in the neonatal clomipramine model of endogenous depression. However, it is not known whether the cognitive impairment in this model responds to antidepressant treatment, and the electrophysiological and neurochemical bases remain to be determined.

OBJECTIVES

To address this, we assessed the effects of escitalopram treatment on spatial learning and memory in the partially baited radial arm maze (RAM) task and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses in neonatal clomipramine-exposed rats. Also, alterations in the levels of biogenic amines and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity were estimated.

RESULTS

Fourteen days of escitalopram treatment restored the mobility and preference to sucrose water in the forced swim and sucrose consumption tests, respectively. The learning impairment in the RAM was reversed by escitalopram treatment. Interestingly, CA1-LTP was decreased in the neonatal clomipramine-exposed rats, which was restored by escitalopram treatment. Monoamine levels and AChE activity were decreased in several brain regions, which were restored by chronic escitalopram treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, we demonstrate that hippocampal LTP is decreased in this animal model of depression, possibly explaining the learning deficits. Further, the reversal of learning and electrophysiological impairments by escitalopram reveals the important therapeutic effects of escitalopram that could benefit patients suffering from depression.

Euprolactinemic galactorrhea associated with use of imipramine and escitalopram in a postmenopausal woman

Hormonal side effects of antidepressants are infrequent, and galactorrhea is seldom mentioned among tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)-related side effects. Antidepressants can directly stimulate postsynaptic 5-HT receptors in the hypothalamus or indirectly inhibit the tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons through 5-HT, which may increase prolactin levels and later cause galactorrhea. We describe a case of euprolactinemic galactorrhea in a postmenopausal woman, induced by imipramine and escitalopram. This report highlights the presence of unidentified novel mechanisms of antidepressant-induced galactorrhea and other possible contributors.

Specific effects of escitalopram on neuroendocrine response

PURPOSE

Citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, is used as a neuroendocrine probe in human subjects to assess serotonin function as reflected in prolactin and plasma cortisol release. Citalopram is a racemic mixture of equal proportions of the S(+) and R(-) enantiomers. Inhibition of serotonin reuptake and, consequently, antidepressant activity is associated, almost exclusively, with the S(+) enantiomer ("escitalopram"). Studies in animal models indicate that the presence of the R(-) isomer may interfere with the serotonin reuptake activity of escitalopram. The current study compared the neuroendocrine effects of citalopram and escitalopram in healthy human volunteers.

METHODS

Plasma cortisol and prolactin levels following a single oral dose of citalopram (40 mg) or escitalopram (20 mg) were compared in samples taken every 15-30 min over a period of 240 min. Plasma citalopram concentration was determined at the same intervals.

RESULTS

Escitalopram and citalopram caused equivalent increases in plasma cortisol and prolactin. The administration of dexamethasone prior to the escitalopram challenge blocked the evoked increase in cortisol.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to prove that a single dose of escitalopram acts centrally and not peripherally, providing further support of the use of oral escitalopram as a probe for brain serotonergic function.

A case of galactorrhea associated with excitalopram

Escitalopram is one of the most popular selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in current use as a first-line treatment for depression. Escitalopram is well-tolerated and rarely associated with serious side effects. Endocrine and reproductive side effects of serotonergic antidepressants are uncommon and galactorrhea is very rarely mentioned among SSRI-related side effects. Serotonin-enhancing antidepressants may result in a rise in prolactin levels through suppression of dopamine neurotransmission. In the present study, we report a case of hyperprolactinemic galactorrhea associated with escitalopram. A 36-year-old woman developed galactorrhea after initiation of escitalopram for depression and was found to have an elevated prolactin level. Escitalopram was discontinued with resolution of the patient's galactorrhea and normalization of her prolactin level.

Medical causes and consequences of hyperprolactinaemia. A context for psychiatrists

Hyperprolactinaemia is the commonest endocrine disorder of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and can lead to both short-term sexual dysfunction and galactorrhoea, and long-term loss of bone mineral density. Prolactin is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland under the influence of dopamine, which exerts a tonic inhibitory effect on prolactin secretion. Physiological regulators of prolactin secretion include many different types of 'stress' and sleep. Disruption of the normal control of prolactin secretion results in hyperprolactinaemia from pathological and pharmacological causes. The administration of antipsychotic medication is responsible for the high prevalence of hyperprolactinaemia in people with severe mental illness. Physiological hyperprolactinaemia, such as pregnancy and lactation, should be distinguished from pathological causes to prevent unnecessary investigation and treatment. The causes, consequences and management of hyperprolactinaemia are discussed in this article.

Experimental estrogen-induced hyperprolactinemia results in bone-related hearing loss in the guinea pig

Our group (Horner KC, Guieu R, Magnan J, Chays A, Cazals Y. Neuropsychopharmacology 26: 135-138, 2002) has earlier described hyperprolactinemia in some patients presenting inner ear dysfunction. However, in that study, it was not possible to determine whether hyperprolactinemia was a cause or an effect of the symptoms. To investigate the effect of hyperprolactinemia on inner ear function, we first developed a model of hyperprolactinemia in estrogen-primed Fischer 344 rats and then performed functional studies on pigmented guinea pigs. Hyperprolactinemia induced, after 2 mo, a hearing loss of approximately 30-40 dB across all frequencies, as indicated by the compound action potential audiogram. During the 3rd mo, the hearing loss continued to deteriorate. The threshold shifts were more substantial in males than in females. Observations under a dissection microscope revealed bone dysmorphology of the bulla and the cochlea. Light microscopy observations of cryostat sections confirmed bone-related pathology of the bony cochlear bulla and the cochlear wall and revealed morphopathology of the stria vascularis and spiral ligament. Scanning electron microscopy revealed loss of hair cells and stereocilia damage, in particular in the upper three cochlear turns and the two outermost hair cell rows. The data provide the first evidence of otic capsule and hair cell pathology associated with estrogen-induced prolonged hyperprolactinemia and suggest that conditions such as pregnancy, anti-psychotic drug treatment, aging, and/or stress might lead to similar ear dysfunctions.

Quality of life is decreased in female patients treated for microprolactinoma

OBJECTIVE

Most studies on treatment of microprolactinoma have focused on clinical and biochemical outcome rather than on functional and mental well-being. We evaluated this topic in female patients with microprolactinoma, because other pituitary adenomas are associated with decreased quality of life.

DESIGN

We conducted a cross-sectional study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

To assess the impact of treatment for microprolactinoma on subjective well-being, quality of life was investigated in 55 female patients (mean age 45 +/- 10 years), treated for microprolactinoma in our center, using four validated, health-related questionnaires: Short-Form-36 (SF-36), Nottingham Health Profile (NHP), Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (MFI-20), and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Patient outcomes were compared with those of 183 female controls with equal age distributions.

RESULTS

Anxiety and depression scores were increased when compared with controls for all subscales as measured by HADS, and fatigue for all but one subscale as measured by MFI-20. Patients treated for microprolactinoma had worse scores on social functioning, role limitations due to physical problems (SF-36), energy, emotional reaction, and social isolation (NHP) when compared with control subjects. Important independent predictors of quality of life were reproductive status and anxiety and depression scores according to the HADS.

CONCLUSION

Quality of life is impaired in female patients treated for microprolactinoma, especially due to increased anxiety and depression. These increased anxious and depressive feelings might be due to possible effects of hyperprolactinemia on the central nervous system. Failure to recognize this association may adversely affect patient-doctor relationships.

Prolactin Levels in Workers Exposed to Chemical, Physical and Psycho‐Social Urban Stressors

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether traffic police officers exposed to chemical, physical and psycho-social stressors, are at risk for alterations in plasma levels of prolactin (PRL) compared to a control group. Plasma PRL levels were evaluated in 92 male and 51 female, non-smoker, traffic police officers exposed to urban stressors and in 92 male and 51 female controls, matched by sex, age and working life (mean, SD and distribution), after excluding workers with the principal extra-occupational confounding factors. Mean PRL levels were significantly higher than controls in non-smoker, male and female traffic police officers (respectively, p=0.000 and p=0.013). The number of non-smoker, male and female traffic police officers with PRL values outside the upper normal limit for our laboratory was higher than, but not significantly different from controls. Mean PRL levels were not significantly higher than controls in smoker, male and female traffic police officers. The number of smoker, male and female traffic police officers with PRL values outside the normal limit for our laboratory was not significantly different from controls. The results suggest that exposure to urban chemical and physical stressors, interacting with psychosocial factors, may have an influence on PRL levels in traffic police officers. The level of plasma PRL might be a useful early biological marker for workers exposed to urban stressors.

Effects of oral racemic citalopram on neuroendocrine responses

Citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), has been used as a neuroendocrine probe to assess serotonin (5-HT) function in human subjects. In an effort to characterize the oral citalopram challenge, we hypothesized that oral racemic citalopram would increase plasma cortisol, prolactin and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations; ACTH had not been measured in previous studies on the neuroendocrine effects of citalopram. Nine healthy male subjects initially received 20 mg of citalopram in an open-label study, and subsequently received placebo and 40 mg of citalopram in a single-blind, randomized, cross-over study. The administration of citalopram 20 mg failed to produce a significant neuroendocrine response but 40 mg resulted in reliably increased plasma cortisol concentrations. The 40 mg dose, however, did not reliably influence the levels of plasma prolactin or plasma ACTH. The results of this study indicate that caution should be used in accepting oral racemic citalopram as a potential presynaptic serotonergic challenge agent. Further studies are needed to fully determine the validity of racemic citalopram and the active enantiomer, escitalopram, as 5-HT probes.

Tryptophan and tyrosine availability and response to antidepressant treatment in major depression

BACKGROUND

It has been suggested that the ratio of tryptophan (TRP) and tyrosine (TYR) to other large neutral amino acids may predict response to antidepressant drugs with predominantly serotonergic compared with predominantly noradrenergic activity and that this may be clinically useful.

METHOD

147 subjects with a DSM-III-R diagnosis of major depression underwent a detailed clinical evaluation and prior to treatment had baseline measures of TRP, TYR and other large neutral amino acids (LNAA), prolactin and cortisol. Subjects entered a 6-week randomised treatment trial comparing fluoxetine and nortriptyline.

RESULTS

There was no main effect on 6-week outcome of TRP/LNAA ratio or TYR/LNAA ratio and no interaction between these factors and treatment (fluoxetine vs nortriptyline).

LIMITATIONS

Alterations in antidepressant dose were allowed therefore possibly reducing the effect of TRP or TYR availability on response.

CONCLUSIONS

Previous findings that TRP/LNAA and TYR/LNAA ratios may predict differential response to antidepressants were not replicated and neither was our previous finding of a complex relationship between TRP/LNAA and baseline prolactin in predicting 6-week response.

Basal prolactin values correlate with response to reboxetine treatment in major depression, but not with response to citalopram

Little is known about variables that might predict outcome in major depression. Recently, basal prolactin values (BPV) have been suggested to predict response to treatment with tricyclic antidepressive drugs. In order to examine whether BPV predict response to selective mono-aminergic therapy, 24 in-patients with major depression were treated in a single-masked, randomised study using the most selective noradrenergic or serotonergic reuptake inhibitors available for antidepressant treatment, i.e. reboxetine and citalopram. A significant correlation between BPV and treatment response to reboxetine was found, but not between BPV and response to citalopram. As BPV are influenced by noradrenergic activity, it can be hypothesized that depressed patients with comparatively high BPV have a relatively high noradrenergic function. This might explain why in our study depressed patients with the highest BPV responded strongest to selective noradrenergic treatment with reboxetine. As measurement of BPV is simple, further studies are suggested to examine the possible clinical value of the link between prolactin, noradrenergic function in major depression and treatment response.

24-h Monitoring of plasma norepinephrine, MHPG, cortisol, growth hormone and prolactin in depression

Depression is associated with alterations in hormone and catecholamine circadian rhythms. Analysis of these alterations has the potential to distinguish between three neurobiological models of depression, the catecholamine model, the phase advance model and the dysregulation model. Although a number of studies of 24-h rhythms have been reported, inconsistencies among the findings have complicated efforts to model the chronobiology of depression. The present study takes advantage of frequent plasma sampling over the 24-h period and a multioscillator cosinor model to fit the 24-h rhythms.

METHOD

Plasma levels of norepinephrine, cortisol, prolacatin and growth hormone were sampled at 30-min intervals, and MHPG at 60-min intervals, over a 24-h period in 22 patients with major depressive disorder and 20 healthy control volunteers.

RESULTS

The depressed patients had phase advanced circadian rhythms for cortisol, norepinephrine and MHPG, phase advanced hemicircadian rhythms for cortisol and prolactin, and a phase advanced ultradian rhythm for prolactin compared to healthy control subjects. In addition, the rhythm-corrected 24-h mean value (mesor) of norepinephrine was lower in the depressed patients compared to the healthy controls. There also was a poorer goodness-of-fit for norepinephrine to the circadian oscillator in the depressed patients relative to the healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide partial support for the dysregulation model of depression and are consistent with those studies that have found phase advances in cortisol, norepinephrine and MHPG rhythms in depression.

Antidepressant medication use and breast cancer risk: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Animal and human studies have reported an association between antidepressant (AD) medication use and breast cancer risk. A population-based case-control study was designed specifically to examine this association among women in Ontario, Canada.

METHODS

The Ontario Cancer Registry (OCR) identified women diagnosed with primary breast cancer. Controls, randomly sampled from the female population of Ontario, were frequency matched by 5-year age groups. A mailed self-administered questionnaire included questions about lifetime use of AD and potential confounders. Multivariate logistic regression yielded odds ratio estimates.

RESULTS

'Ever' use of AD was reported by 14% (441/3077) cases versus 12% (372/2994) controls. The age-adjusted odds ratio (AOR) for 'ever' use was 1.17, (95% CI: 1.01, 1.36). An increased risk was also observed for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors = 1.33 (95% CI: 1.07, 1.66), Sertraline = 1.58 (95% CI: 1.03, 2.41), and Paroxetine = 1.55 (95% CI: 1.00, 2.40). None of the 30 variables assessed for confounding altered the risk estimate by more than 10%. Multivariate adjustment including all possible breast cancer risk factors yielded an unchanged, but not significant, point estimate (MVOR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.96, 1.51). No relationship was observed for duration or timing of AD use.

CONCLUSIONS

A modest association between 'ever' use of AD and breast cancer was found using the most parsimonious multivariate model. OR estimates did not change, but CI were widened and statistical significance lost, after adjustment for factors associated with breast cancer risk.

Safety and tolerability of atypical antipsychotics in patients with bipolar disorder: prevalence, monitoring and management

Atypical antipsychotics are associated with fewer movement disorders and a lower risk of tardive dyskinesia than conventional antipsychotics, but are not without side-effects. Metabolic side-effects associated with some of the atypical antipsychotics are a concern for both clinicians and patients. Adverse events related to central nervous system effects, weight gain, and alterations in glucose, lipid, and prolactin levels in patients with depression, bipolar, and anxiety disorders have been reported. Balancing the significant benefits of treatment with these agents against the potential risks of metabolic disturbances and other adverse effects is crucial. Emerging data are making it possible to determine the risk-benefit analysis for specific atypical antipsychotics in individual patients and allow for targeted selection of treatment. A new concept of effectiveness is emerging that attempts to balance adverse effects of treatment with patient quality of life. Patients treated with atypical antipsychotics should have their weight, waist circumference, glucose, and lipids monitored on a regular basis. Monitoring of prolactin levels is not suggested; however, a baseline measurement before initiating treatment can be useful, with subsequent assessment only if a patient demonstrates symptoms. Prevention of weight gain is important. Diet and exercise should be considered for prevention and management, with the use of pharmacologic strategies approached with caution in patients with mood disorders. If a patient is at high risk of developing diabetes, certain pharmacologic agents have been shown to delay the onset of overt diabetes. Once diabetes or dyslipidemia are diagnosed, management should proceed in accordance with approved guidelines for these conditions.

Musculo-skeletal pain, psychological distress, and hormones during the menopausal transition

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between sex hormones (estradiol, testosterone, androstendione, DHEA-S) and prolactin on one hand and musculo-skeletal pain and psychological distress on the other during the menopausal transition.

METHOD

Fifty-seven regularly menstruating women, who were studied over five consecutive years, who reached menopause before the fifth assessment, and did not use hormone replacement therapy were included in the study. Hormones were sampled and a questionnaire including questions on psychological distress and musculo-skeletal pain were administered at the five points of assessment. Data on last year before menopause (T1), first (T2) and second (T3) year after menopause are reported.

RESULTS

DHEA-S, but neither testosterone nor androstendione, was inversely related to distress and pain. Pain contributed to the variance of DHEA-S over the menopausal transition, whereas DHEA-S levels did not predict pain or distress when baseline levels were controlled for. Prolactin was at T1 and T2 positively associated with distress and at T2 positively associated with musculo-skeletal pain. Musculo-skeletal pain pre-menopause was significantly related to estradiol.

CONCLUSION

DHEA-S was negatively associated, and prolactin positively associated with musculo-skeletal pain and psychological distress. Whereas post-menopause DHEA-S levels were influenced by pain scores, no significant effect of pre-menopause hormones on post-menopause pain and distress was found.

Psychiatric aspects of endocrine disorders in women

Endocrine disorders are associated with significant psychiatric morbidity. Psychiatric symptoms may manifest as discreet psychiatric syndromes or, more commonly, with a heterogenous group of nonspecific symptoms. Research is needed to understand the relations between hormone excess or deficiency and alterations of mood, cognition, and perception. It is important for clinicians to carefully screen for psychiatric morbidity in patients who present with endocrine disorders. Moreover, patients who appear to present with primary psychiatric syndromes should be carefully evaluated by physical examination and biochemical screening when appropriate to exclude the presence of an underlying endocrine disorder.

Blunted prolactin response to fentanyl in depression. Normalizing effect of partial sleep deprivation

There is some evidence that sleep deprivation (SD) might exert its antidepressant properties by involving endogenous opioid mechanisms. The authors investigated the effects of mu-receptor agonist administration on prolactin release in depressed patients before and after partial SD. Medication-free female depressed inpatients (N=18) were participating in two fentanyl challenge tests after partial SD and undisturbed sleep, 3 days apart in random order. Healthy volunteer women (N=10) were enrolled after full night sleep as comparison subjects. Five of them had placebo trials. Participants were given an intravenous injection of 0.1 mg/70 kg fentanyl at 9:00 AM. The prolactin secretory response to the opiate agonist was investigated for 1 h with serial blood sampling. After a night of undisturbed sleep, fentanyl administration prompted increases in plasma prolactin concentrations with blunted responses found in the depressed group. Following partial SD, the stimulated prolactin secretion of depressed patients increased significantly and was comparable to the response of comparison subjects. These findings suggest that SD acts via an opioid/dopamine-related mechanism. An alternative explanation, based on serotonin involvement is addressed in the discussion.

Impact of cortisol on buspirone stimulated prolactin release: a double-blind placebo-controlled study

Buspirone is known to stimulate prolactin release. Clinical studies (e.g. in chronic fatigue syndrome) suggest that the response may be influenced by baseline cortisol levels. We conducted a double-blind placebo-controlled study to examine the relationship between the prolactin response to buspirone challenge and baseline cortisol level. Fifty healthy volunteers took part in the study. Buspirone was found to consistently elevate PRL levels above those seen following placebo administration. The PRL response as measured by area under the curve was highly correlated with the baseline cortisol level.