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Thapa B, Bell DS, Anderson JL. Extraction of volatile organic compounds liberated upon filament extrusion by 3D pen and its comparison with a desktop 3D printer using solid-phase microextraction fiber and Arrow. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1719:464740. [PMID: 38401373 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.464740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Desktop 3D printers that operate by the fused deposition modeling (FDM) mechanism are known to release numerous hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during printing, including some with potential carcinogenic effects. Operating in a similar manner to FDM 3D printers, 3D pens have gained popularity recently from their ability to allow users to effortlessly draw in the air or create various 3D printed shapes while handling the device like a pen. In contrast to numerous modern 3D printers, 3D pens lack their own ventilation systems and are often used in settings with minimum airflow. Their operation makes users more vulnerable to VOC emissions, as the released VOCs are likely to be in the breathing zone. Consequently, monitoring VOCs released during the use of 3D pens is crucial. In this study, VOCs liberated while extruding acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filaments from a 3D pen were measured by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). SPME was investigated using the traditional fiber and Arrow geometries with the DVB/Carbon WR/PDMS sorbent while four different brands of ABS filaments-Amazon Basics, Gizmodork, Mynt 3D, and Novamaker-were used with the 3D pen. Heatmap analysis showed differentiation among these brands based on the liberated VOCs. The nozzle temperature and printing speed were found to affect the number and amount of released VOCs. This study goes a step further and presents for the first time a comparison between 3D pen and a desktop 3D printer based on liberated VOCs. Interestingly, the findings reveal that the 3D pen releases a greater number and amount of VOCs compared to the printer. The amounts of liberated VOCs, as indicated by the corresponding chromatographic peak areas, were found to be 1.4 to 62.6 times higher for the 3D pen compared to the 3D printer when using SPME Arrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Thapa
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - David S Bell
- Restek Corporation, 110 Benner Circle, Bellefonte, PA 16823, USA
| | - Jared L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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Thapa B, Hsieh SA, Bell DS, Anderson JL. Monitoring the liberation of volatile organic compounds during fused deposition modeling three dimensional printing using solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1693:463886. [PMID: 36870231 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.463886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printers have gained tremendous popularity and are being widely used in offices, laboratories, and private homes. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is among the most commonly used mechanisms by desktop 3D printers in indoor settings and relies on the extrusion and deposition of heated thermoplastic filaments, resulting in the liberation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). With the growing use of 3D printers, concerns regarding human health have risen as the exposure to VOCs may cause adverse health effects. Therefore, it is important to monitor VOC liberation during printing and to correlate it to filament composition. In this study, VOCs liberated with a desktop printer were measured by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). SPME fibers featuring sorbent coatings of varied polarity were chosen for the extraction of VOCs liberated from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), tough polylactic acid, and copolyester+ (CPE+) filaments. It was found that for all three filaments tested, longer print times resulted in a greater number of extracted VOCs. The ABS filament liberated the most VOCs while the CPE+ filaments liberated the fewest VOCs. Through the use of hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis, filaments as well as fibers could be differentiated based on the liberated VOCs. This study demonstrates that SPME is a promising tool to sample and extract VOCs liberated during 3D printing under non-equilibrium conditions and can be used to aid in tentative identification of the VOCs when coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Thapa
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA
| | - Shu-An Hsieh
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA
| | - David S Bell
- Restek Corporation, 110 Benner Circle, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania 16823, USA
| | - Jared L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA.
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Royle SH, Cropper L, Watson JS, Sinibaldi S, Entwisle M, Sephton MA. Solid-Phase Microextraction for Organic Contamination Control Throughout Assembly and Operational Phases of Space Missions. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:127-143. [PMID: 36473197 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2021.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Space missions concerned with life detection contain highly sensitive instruments for the detection of organics. Terrestrial contamination can interfere with signals of indigenous organics in samples and has the potential to cause false-positive biosignature detections, which may lead to incorrect suggestions of the presence of life elsewhere in the solar system. This study assessed the capability of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) as a method for monitoring organic contamination encountered by spacecraft hardware during assembly and operation. SPME-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) analysis was performed on potential contaminant source materials, which are commonly used in spacecraft construction. The sensitivity of SPME-GC-MS to organics was assessed in the context of contaminants identified in molecular wipes taken from hardware surfaces on the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover. SPME was found to be effective at detecting a wide range of common organic contaminants that include aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, nitrogen-containing compounds, alcohols, and carbonyls. A notable example of correlation of contaminant with source material was the detection of benzenamine compounds in an epoxy adhesive analyzed by SPME-GC-MS and in the ExoMars rover surface wipe samples. The current form of SPME-GC-MS does not enable quantitative evaluation of contaminants, nor is it suitable for the detection of every group of organic molecules relevant to astrobiological contamination concerns, namely large and/or polar molecules such as amino acids. However, it nonetheless represents an effective new monitoring method for rapid, easy identification of organic contaminants commonly present on spacecraft hardware and could thus be utilized in future space missions as part of their contamination control and mitigation protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel H Royle
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lorcan Cropper
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan S Watson
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Mark A Sephton
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Lu X, Fan C, Shang J, Deng J, Yin H. Headspace solid-phase microextraction for the determination of volatile sulfur compounds in odorous hyper-eutrophic freshwater lakes using gas chromatography with flame photometric detection. Microchem J 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Sakhvidi MJZ, Bahrami A, Ghiasvand A, Mahjub H, Tuduri L. Determination of Inhalational Anesthetics in Field and Laboratory by SPME GC/MS. ANAL LETT 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2011.644736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Lopes N, Hawkins SA, Jegier P, Menn FM, Sayler GS, Ripp S. Detection of dichloromethane with a bioluminescent (lux) bacterial bioreporter. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 39:45-53. [PMID: 21688172 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-011-0997-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The focus of this research effort was to develop an autonomous, inducible, lux-based bioluminescent bioreporter for the real-time detection of dichloromethane. Dichloromethane (DCM), also known as methylene chloride, is a volatile organic compound and one of the most commonly used halogenated solvents in the U.S., with applications ranging from grease and paint stripping to aerosol propellants and pharmaceutical tablet coatings. Predictably, it is released into the environment where it contaminates air and water resources. Due to its classification as a probable human carcinogen, hepatic toxin, and central nervous system effector, DCM must be carefully monitored and controlled. Methods for DCM detection usually rely on analytical techniques such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and capillary gas chromatography or photoacoustic environmental monitors, all of which require trained personnel and/or expensive equipment. To complement conventional monitoring practices, we have created a bioreporter for the self-directed detection of DCM by taking advantage of the evolutionary adaptation of bacteria to recognize and metabolize chemical agents. This bioreporter, Methylobacterium extorquens DCM( lux ), was engineered to contain a bioluminescent luxCDABE gene cassette derived from Photorhabdus luminescens fused downstream to the dcm dehalogenase operon, which causes the organism to generate visible light when exposed to DCM. We have demonstrated detection limits down to 1.0 ppm under vapor phase exposures and 0.1 ppm under liquid phase exposures with response times of 2.3 and 1.3 h, respectively, and with specificity towards DCM under relevant industrial environmental monitoring conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Lopes
- The Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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Kim KH, Anthwal A, Sohn JR, Heo GS. The role of sample collection method and the bias between different standard matrices in the determination of volatile organic compounds in air. Mikrochim Acta 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-010-0394-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Pandey SK, Kim KH. A review of methods for the determination of reduced sulfur compounds (RSCs) in air. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:3020-9. [PMID: 19534108 DOI: 10.1021/es803272f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The importance of reduced sulfur compounds (RSCs) in air is well-known for its significant effect on global atmospheric chemistry and malodor and quality of life. In this review, methodological approaches commonly employed for the analysis of RSCs such as hydrogen sulfide, methane thiol, dimethyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, and dimethyl disulfide in air are described. To this end, we focus on gas chromatography (GC) because it is the most feasible, frequently used, and widely accepted approach for the analysis of RSC in air. The advantages and possible limitations related to sampling and/or preconcentration methods are also discussed. The relative performance of different GC-based detection methodologies is evaluated in terms of basic quality assurance. Some alternative methods (i.e., other than GC) that deal with the determination of RSCs in air matrices are also discussed briefly. Finally, this review addresses the methodological developments of RSC analysis by highlighting current limitations and future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhir Kumar Pandey
- Atmospheric Environment Laboratory, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Sejong University, Seoul 143-747, Korea
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Kim KH, Pandey SK, Pal R. Analytical bias among different gas chromatographic approaches using standard BTX gases and exhaust samples. J Sep Sci 2009; 32:549-58. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200800556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Bocchini P, Dello Monaco D, Pozzi R, Pinelli F, Galletti GC. Solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography with flame ionization detection for monitoring of organic solvents in working areas. Mikrochim Acta 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-008-0128-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Analysis of industrial contaminants in indoor air: Part 1. Volatile organic compounds, carbonyl compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:540-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.10.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2008] [Revised: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 10/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Lee MR, Chang CM, Dou J. Determination of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes in water at sub-ng l-1 levels by solid-phase microextraction coupled to cryo-trap gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 69:1381-7. [PMID: 17582460 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2006] [Revised: 05/01/2007] [Accepted: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
A trace analytical method of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) in water has been developed by using headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled to cryo-trap gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The chromatographic peak shape for BTEX was improved by using cryo-trap equipment. The HS-SPME experimental procedures to extract BTEX from water were optimized with a 75 microm carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS)-coated fiber at a sodium chloride concentration of 267 g l(-1), extraction for 15 min at 25 degrees C and desorption at 290 degrees C for 2 min. Good linearity was verified in a range of 0.0001-50 microg l(-1) for each analyte (r(2)=0.996-0.999). The limits of detection (LODs) of BTEX in water reached at sub-ng l(-1) levels. LODs of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m/p-xylene and o-xylene were 0.04, 0.02, 0.05, 0.01 and 0.02 ng l(-1), respectively. The proposed analytical method was successfully used for the quantification of trace BTEX in ground water. The results indicate that HS-SPME coupled to cryo-trap GC-MS is an effective tool for analysis of BTEX in water samples at the sub-ng l(-1) level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maw-Rong Lee
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan, ROC.
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Pastore P, Favaro G, Badocco D, Lavagnini I. Headspace Solid Phase Micro Extraction GC-ECD Determination of Volatile Organic Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Soils. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 95:741-56. [PMID: 16398339 DOI: 10.1002/adic.200590088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Soil samples were suspended in a suitable aqueous solvent and a solid phase microextraction (SPME) fibre was used to sample the headspace (HS) for five volatile chlorinated compounds (VOX). Their determination was made by GC-ECD technique in the splitless mode. Preliminary studies on the effects of methanol and of the sand/clay ratio on the fibre extraction were made. Four experimental factors, namely, extraction time, extraction temperature, pH and NaCl%, able to affect distribution of the analytes among the four different phases, were varied in suitable ranges. A multivariate approach applied to the face centred cube (FCC) experimental design, was used to try to optimise the overall sample response. The suitable set of factors found for the determination of chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethylene, 1,1 ,2-trichloroethane, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, was a compromise among the relevant optimal factor sets of the single analytes. Detection limits of 0.003 ng, 0.022 ng, 0.001 ng, 0.015 ng and 0.002 ng were found respectively for the five cited analytes. The method was successfully used to determine the analyte contents in two real soils sampled in an industrial area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Pastore
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padua, via Marzolo 1, Padova, 35131 Italy.
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Michulec M, Wardencki W, Partyka M, Namieśnik J. Analytical Techniques Used in Monitoring of Atmospheric Air Pollutants. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1080/10408340500207482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Cho HJ, Baek K, Lee HH, Lee SH, Yang JW. Competitive extraction of multi-component contaminants in water by Carboxen-polydimethylsiloxane fiber during solid-phase microextraction. J Chromatogr A 2003; 988:177-84. [PMID: 12641155 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)02083-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A headspace analysis for groundwater contaminated with BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes) was employed to investigate the feasibility and limitations of Carboxen-PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) fiber during SPME (solid-phase microextraction). Although the response of the Carboxen-PDMS fiber was much higher than that of conventional PDMS fiber, a reduction of the extracted amount was also observed under multi-component conditions due to competitive replacement. The general affinity of analytes to the fiber was high in the order xylene>ethylbenzene>toluene> benzene. The behavior of the Carboxen-PDMS fiber was examined more precisely at constant compositional ratio, because the analysis of contaminants using Carboxen-PDMS fiber was reported to be possible at known composition. The relative affinity of each component was shown to differ according to the total amount of analytes. Furthermore, the extracted amounts of benzene and toluene did not show a consistent tendency as the concentration of each component increased. These results indicate that caution should be exercised if Carboxen-PDMS fibers are used for the analysis of BTEX in groundwater samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Jeong Cho
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 373-1, Guseong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejon 305-701, South Korea
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Tuduri L, Desauziers V, Fanlo JL. Dynamic versus static sampling for the quantitative analysis of volatile organic compounds in air with polydimethylsiloxane-carboxen solid-phase microextraction fibers. J Chromatogr A 2002; 963:49-56. [PMID: 12188000 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)00222-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Polydimethylsiloxane-Carboxen solid-phase microextraction fibers are now well known to be very efficient trapping media for the analysis of volatile organic compound (VOC) traces in air. However, competitive adsorption, due to the nature of the coating, considerably limits analyte quantitation. In this contribution, different experimental conditions are investigated to achieve quantitative analysis. Static and dynamic sampling were compared for the analysis of 11 VOCs in a standard gaseous mixture at different extraction times (1, 5, 15 and 45 min). The same experiments were performed with four isolated compounds. Adsorption results from gas mixture and isolated compounds were compared and a common linear range (i.e., where quantitative analysis is conceivable) was determined. When sampling was in the dynamic mode, compounds with lower affinity for the coating showed a very narrow linear range, meaning that competition for adsorption was quickly discriminative. The same experiments in static mode allowed one to obtain wider linear ranges for all compounds, especially for lower-affinity compounds: for a 1 min sampling time, acetone showed a linear adsorption range from 3 to 60 microg m(-3) in the dynamic mode which extended from 5 to 300 microg m(-3) in the static mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovic Tuduri
- Laboratoire Génie de l'Environnement Industriel, Ecole des Mines d'Alès, France.
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