Chronic pain following ankle sprains in athletes: the role of arthroscopic surgery

Chronic syndesmotic instability - Current evidence on management

This review article discusses the current evidence on the management of chronic syndesmotic instability. Conservative treatment has a limited role, and surgical intervention is most commonly reported as the mainstay of treatment, however the literature consists of small case series and descriptions of operative techniques, and thus the evidence base for any treatment is weak. Surgical options include arthroscopic debridement alone, static fixation with cortical screws, dynamic fixation with suture-button devices, and ligamentous repair or augmentation.

Multiaxial 3D MRI of the Ankle: Advanced High-Resolution Visualization of Ligaments, Tendons, and Articular Cartilage

MRI is a valuable tool for diagnosing a broad spectrum of acute and chronic ankle disorders, including ligament tears, tendinopathy, and osteochondral lesions. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) MRI provides a high image signal and contrast of anatomic structures for accurately characterizing articular cartilage, bone marrow, synovium, ligaments, tendons, and nerves. However, 2D MRI limitations are thick slices and fixed slice orientations. In clinical practice, 2D MRI is limited to 2 to 3 mm slice thickness, which can cause blurred contours of oblique structures due to volume averaging effects within the image slice. In addition, image plane orientations are fixated and cannot be changed after the scan, resulting in 2D MRI lacking multiplanar and multiaxial reformation abilities for individualized image plane orientations along oblique and curved anatomic structures, such as ankle ligaments and tendons. In contrast, three-dimensional (3D) MRI is a newer, clinically available MRI technique capable of acquiring high-resolution ankle MRI data sets with isotropic voxel size. The inherently high spatial resolution of 3D MRI permits up to five times thinner (0.5 mm) image slices. In addition, 3D MRI can be acquired image voxel with the same edge length in all three space dimensions (isotropism), permitting unrestricted multiplanar and multiaxial image reformation and postprocessing after the MRI scan. Clinical 3D MRI of the ankle with 0.5 to 0.7 mm isotropic voxel size resolves the smallest anatomic ankle structures and abnormalities of ligament and tendon fibers, osteochondral lesions, and nerves. After acquiring the images, operators can align image planes individually along any anatomic structure of interest, such as ligaments and tendons segments. In addition, curved multiplanar image reformations can unfold the entire course of multiaxially curved structures, such as perimalleolar tendons, into one image plane. We recommend adding 3D MRI pulse sequences to traditional 2D MRI protocols to visualize small and curved ankle structures to better advantage. This article provides an overview of the clinical application of 3D MRI of the ankle, compares diagnostic performances of 2D and 3D MRI for diagnosing ankle abnormalities, and illustrates clinical 3D ankle MRI applications.

Arthroscopic debridement of the ankle in synovitis

Inflammation and hypertrophy of the ankle joint's synovial lining can occur due to various causes. Chronic pain and degenerative changes may be due to synovitis causing clinical manifestations through traction on the joint capsule. The failure of conservative treatment for at least six months indicates arthroscopic debridement, which can provide significant pain relief without the morbidity of extensive surgical exposures. This study was therefore conducted to establish the functional results of arthroscopic debridement of the ankle joint in synovitis. Fifteen patients with chronic ankle pain who had not responded to conservative treatment for approximately six months were included in the study. Arthroscopic debridement was performed using a shaver blade, followed by a postoperative ankle physiotherapy regimen. Patients were assessed preoperatively and postoperatively using the AOFAS, FADI, and VAS scores, with a mean follow-up period of 26 months. There was a significant improvement in the final clinical outcomes of the patients. The post-operative VAS score improved to 2.20±0.56 (2-4) (p-value=0.001), the AOFAS score was 86±8.25 (65-98) (p-value-0.001), and the FADI Score was 86.93±7.35(70-96) (p-value=0.001). Thirteen patients (86.67%) achieved outstanding or good results, while two had fair results, according to Meislin's criterion. One patient reported a superficial wound infection, which subsided with antibiotic therapy. The study findings indicate that arthroscopic ankle debridement is an efficient method to treat persistent ankle discomfort induced by synovitis, and it has a low postsurgical complications rate, quicker recovery, and less joint stiffness.

In vivo evaluation of ankle kinematics and tibiotalar joint contact strains using digital volume correlation and 3 T clinical MRI

BACKGROUND

In vivo evaluation of ankle joint biomechanics is key to investigating the effect of injuries on the mechanics of the joint and evaluating the effectiveness of treatments. The objectives of this study were to 1) investigate the kinematics and contact strains of the ankle joint and 2) to investigate the correlation between the tibiotalar joint contact strains and the prevalence of osteochondral lesions of the talus distribution.

METHODS

Eight healthy human ankle joints were subjected to compressive load and 3 T MRIs were obtained before and after applying load. The MR images in combination with digital volume correlation enabled non-invasive measurement of ankle joint kinematics and tibiotalar joint contact strains in three dimensions.

FINDINGS

The total translation of the calcaneus was smaller (0.48 ± 0.15 mm, p < 0.05) than the distal tibia (0.93 ± 0.16 mm) and the talus (1.03 ± 0.26 mm). These movements can produce compressive and shear joint contact strains (approaching 9%), which can cause development of lesions on joints. 87.5% of peak tensile, compressive, and shear strains in the tibiotalar joint took place in the medial and lateral zones.

INTERPRETATION

The findings suggested that ankle bones translate independently from each other, and in some cases in opposite directions. These findings help explain the distribution of osteochondral lesions of the talus which have previously been observed to be in medial and lateral regions of the talar dome in 90% of cases. They also provide a reason for the central region of talar dome being less susceptible to developing osteochondral lesions.

One in Three Patients With Chronic Lateral Ankle Instability Has a Cartilage Lesion

BACKGROUND

Chronic lateral ankle instability (CLAI) is associated with the presence or development of intra-articular pathologies such as chondral or osteochondral lesions, or (O)CLs. Currently, the incidence of (O)CLs in patients with CLAI is unknown.

PURPOSE

To determine the incidence of (O)CLs in patients with CLAI.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in the PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase (Ovid), and Cochrane databases for articles published from January 2000 until December 2020. Two authors independently screened the search results and conducted the quality assessment using the methodological index for non-randomized studies (MINORS) criteria. Clinical studies were included that reported findings on the presence of ankle (O)CLs based on pre- or intraoperative diagnostic measures in patients with CLAI (>6 months of symptoms). Patient and lesion characteristics were pooled using a simplified method. Lesion characteristics included localization and chondral and osteochondral involvement. The primary outcome was the incidence of (O)CLs in ankles with CLAI. A random-effects model with 95% CIs was used to analyze the primary outcome. The distribution of (O)CLs in the ankle joint was reported according to talar or tibial involvement, with medial and lateral divisions for talar involvement.

RESULTS

Twelve studies were included with 2145 patients and 2170 ankles with CLAI. The pooled incidence of (O)CLs in ankles with CLAI was 32.2% (95% CI, 22.7%-41.7%). Among all lesions, 43% were chondral and 57% were osteochondral. Among all (O)CLs, 85% were located on the talus and 17% on the distal tibia. Of the talar (O)CLs, 68% were located medially and 32% laterally.

CONCLUSION

(O)CLs were found in up to 32% of ankles with CLAI. The most common location was the talus (85%). Furthermore, most lesions were located on the medial talar dome (68%). These findings will aid physicians in the early recognition and treatment of ankle (O)CLs in the context of CLAI.

The Value of SPECT-CT in Diagnosing Complex Non-Arthritic and Non-Neoplastic Conditions of the Foot and Ankle

INTRODUCTION

There is little information on the value of using single photon emission computerized tomography-computed tomography (SPECT-CT) in non-arthritic and non-neoplastic conditions of the foot and ankle (F&A). The vast majority of studies have investigated the role of SPECT-CT in degenerative conditions, bony pathology, and neoplastic conditions. The diagnostic value of SPECT-CT in purely non-arthritic and non-neoplastic conditions, in the absence of other conclusive radiological findings, is yet to be clarified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the value of SPECT-CT in a cohort of patients with complex F&A pathology, in whom diagnostic uncertainty existed after conventional imaging techniques, and to assess its added value in routine clinical practice.

METHODOLOGY

A retrospective analysis of 297 SPECT-CTs from 2010 to 2017 found 18 SPECT-CTs (age = 16-56 years) performed for non-arthritic F&A pathology. Changes in diagnosis, management, and clinical outcome scores were recorded before and after SPECT-CT imaging.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that the provisional diagnosis was different from the SPECT-CT diagnosis in 10 (56%) out of the 18 patients and led to a modified treatment plan, which was successful in 8 (80%) out of the 10 patients. The post-intervention Manchester Oxford Foot Questionnaire (MOX-FQ) and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) score improved from 76 ± 18 to 58 ± 24 (P = .02), and from 72 ± 17 to 49 ± 32 (P = .01), respectively. The SPECT-CT scan was useful in confirming the provisional diagnosis in the remaining 8 patients where a diagnostic uncertainty existed after conventional imaging techniques. Overall, a total of 15 out of 18 patients (83%) showed an improvement in their symptoms after management led by SPECT-CT diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Our study highlights the added value of SPECT-CT in patients presenting with non-arthritic and non-neoplastic F&A conditions in which there is diagnostic uncertainty after conventional imaging. In 80% of cases, a change in management driven by the SPECT-CT findings led to a successful outcome. We have found SPECT-CT to be a useful investigative modality in assessing these complex F&A cases.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

3D MRI of the Ankle: A Concise State-of-the-Art Review

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a powerful imaging modality for visualizing a wide range of ankle disorders that affect ligaments, tendons, and articular cartilage. Standard two-dimensional (2D) fast spin-echo (FSE) and turbo spin-echo (TSE) pulse sequences offer high signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratios, but slice thickness limitations create partial volume effects. Modern three-dimensional (3D) FSE/TSE pulse sequences with isotropic voxel dimensions can achieve higher spatial resolution and similar contrast resolutions in ≤ 5 minutes of acquisition time. Advanced acceleration schemes have reduced the blurring effects of 3D FSE/TSE pulse sequences by affording shorter echo train lengths. The ability for thin-slice partitions and multiplanar reformation capabilities eliminate relevant partial volume effects and render modern 3D FSE/TSE pulse sequences excellently suited for MRI visualization of several oblique and curved structures around the ankle. Clinical efficiency gains can be achieved by replacing two or three 2D FSE/TSE sequences within an ankle protocol with a single isotropic 3D FSE/TSE pulse sequence. In this article, we review technical pulse sequence properties for 3D MRI of the ankle, discuss practical considerations for clinical implementation and achieving the highest image quality, compare diagnostic performance metrics of 2D and 3D MRI for major ankle structures, and illustrate a broad spectrum of ankle abnormalities.

Syndesmotic Ligament Allograft Reconstruction for Treatment of Chronic Diastasis

Chronic diastasis after a syndesmotic injury can lead to ankle joint instability and loss of joint congruence. Failure to restore the fibula into the proper anatomic position within the incisura increases the focal stress on the talus and can accelerate degenerative joint destruction. In the case of failed syndesmotic repair, fixation options are limited. If promptly diagnosed, the syndesmosis may be amenable to open debridement and subsequent fixation with 2 interosseous screws. If latent diastasis is found, however, syndesmotic fusion by bone block arthrodesis is recommended. We present a syndesmotic allograft repair technique for surgical reconstruction of chronic unstable syndesmotic ruptures.

Reconstruction of Chronic Injured Distal Tibiofibular Syndesmosis with Autogenous Tendon Graft: A Systematic Review

Background

Chronic injuries of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis are common in patients who fail to receive adequate diagnosis and timely treatment. Reconstruction of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis with an autogenous tendon graft in these patients is effective, although relatively rarely reported.

Purpose

To investigate clinical outcomes of syndesmosis reconstruction with an autogenous tendon graft for chronic injuries of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis by reviewing the current literature.

Methods

An English literature search was conducted in the MEDLINE, CENTRAL, and Cochrane databases to identify published studies up to October 2017. Preset inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to identify all eligible articles.

Results

Five studies (all with level IV evidence) that included a total of 51 patients who underwent reconstruction with an autogenous tendon graft were identified. It was reported that the symptoms were relieved postoperatively, including obviously improved functional outcomes and restoration of motions and exercise capacity. The mean American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society scale score of 16 patients was 53 preoperatively and 89 postoperatively. The visual analogue scale score of 14 patients decreased from 82.4 preoperatively to 12.6 postoperatively. A total of 5 (9.8%) complication cases were reported.

Conclusion

Reconstruction of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis with an autogenous tendon for chronic syndesmosis injury showed a good therapeutic effect in terms of both subjective symptoms and objective evaluation scores. The interosseous ligament could be an appropriate reconstruction target in the treatment of chronic syndesmosis injury.

Arthroscopic coronal plane syndesmotic instability has been over-diagnosed

PURPOSE

Ankle arthroscopy is widely used for diagnosis of syndesmotic instability, especially in subtle cases. To date, no published article has systematically reviewed the literature in aggregate to understand which instability values should be used intraoperatively. The primary aim was to systematically review the amount of tibiofibular displacement that correlates with syndesmotic instability after a high ankle sprain. A secondary aim is to assess the quality of such research.

METHODS

Systematic searches of EMBASE (Ovid) and MEDLINE via PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were used.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

studies that arthroscopically evaluated the fibular displacement at various stages of syndesmotic ligament injury. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality using the Anatomical Quality Assessment (AQUA) Tool and methodological index for non-randomized studies (MINORS).

RESULTS

Eight cadaveric studies and three clinical studies were included for review. All studies reported displacement in the coronal plane, four studies reported in the sagittal plane, and one reported findings in the rotational plane. Four cadaveric studies had a similar experimental set up and the weighted mean associated with instability in the coronal plane could be calculated and was 2.9 mm at the anterior portion of the distal tibiofibular joint and 3.4 mm at the posterior portion. Syndesmotic instability in the sagittal plane is less extensively studied, however available data from a cadaveric study suggests thresholds of 2.2 mm of posterior fibular translation when performing an anterior to posterior hook test and 2.6 mm of anterior fibular translation when performing a posterior to anterior hook test.

CONCLUSIONS

The results have concluded that the commonly used 2.0 mm threshold value of distal tibiofibular diastasis may lead to overtreatment of syndesmotic instability, and that using threshold values of 2.9 mm measured at the anterior portion of the incisura and 3.4 mm at the posterior portion may represent better cut off values. Given the ready availability of 3 mm probes among standard arthroscopic instrumentation, at the very least surgeons should use 3 mm in lieu of 2 mm probes intraoperatively.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Chronic Syndesmotic Injuries: Arthrodesis versus Reconstruction

"Chronic syndesmotic injury covers a broad range of symptoms and pathologies. Anterolateral ankle impingement without instability is treated by arthroscopic debridement. Subacute, unstable, syndesmotic injuries are treated by arthroscopic or open debridement followed by secondary stabilization using suture button device or permanent screw placement. Chronic syndesmotic instability is treated by a near-anatomic ligamentoplasty supplemented by screw fixation. In case of poor bone stock, failed ligament reconstruction, or comorbidities, tibiofibular fusion with bone grafting is preferred. Malleolar malunions and particularly anterior or posterior syndesmotic avulsions must be corrected in order to achieve a stable and congruent ankle mortise."

Delayed stabilisation of dynamically unstable syndesmotic injuries results in worse functional outcomes

PURPOSE

Patients with primarily ligamentous injuries of the distal tibiofibular joint comprise up to 12% of all ankle sprains. Patients frequently present late after a syndesmosis injury and delayed treatment potentially leads to pain, prolonged disability and arthritis in the long term. This study aimed to assess clinical outcomes in patients who required syndesmosis fixation in the presence of arthroscopically proven instability, the hypothesis being that a delay to treatment would be associated with worse function.

METHOD

A retrospective cohort study was performed of patients with dynamic instability requiring fixation between the years of 2010-2016. The procedures were performed by two foot and ankle fellowship trained orthopaedic surgeons, over three hospital sites. Patients were classified into three groups based on the time since injury to surgery, acute syndesmotic injury (< 6 weeks), sub-acute (6 weeks-6 months) and chronic syndesmotic injury (> 6 months). Functional scores were retrospectively collected using the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS).

RESULTS

Compared to patients with acute injuries, those with chronic injuries had significantly lower FAOS subscales (p < 0.001), with the greatest difference in quality of life (- 20.7, 95% CI - 31.6 to - 9.8, p = 0.012). There was a mean follow-up of 4.3 years. Although the average FAOS subscales in those with sub-acute injuries were lower than in those with acute injuries, the difference was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study suggest that delayed surgical stabilisation (> 6 months) is associated with significantly worse clinical function, and thus timely identification and early referral of those patients with potentially unstable syndesmotic injuries is recommended.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Anterior Syndesmotic Augmentation Technique Using Nonabsorbable Suture-Tape for Acute and Chronic Syndesmotic Instability

Syndesmotic instability is a source of significant pain and disability. Both subtle instability and gross diastasis, whether acute or chronic, require stabilization and may benefit from reconstruction with ligamentous augmentation. The use of nonabsorbable suture-tape has emerged as a promising operative strategy, allowing surgeons to anatomically reconstruct the syndesmosis, in particular the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament. The current work provides a detailed description of the technique and preliminary results of a patient cohort treated using nonabsorbable suture-tape for syndesmotic augmentation.Level of Evidence: Level V, expert opinion.

Sinus Tarsi Syndrome: Diagnosed on 99mTc-MDP bone SPECT/CT

Sinus Tarsi Syndrome is a cause of chronic ankle instability and pain. MRI of the ankle has been the modality of choice for diagnosing the condition. However, SPECT-CT offers an alternate modality for diagnosing and evaluation of the condition. We present the case of a footballer who was suffering from chronic right leg pain despite receiving physiotherapy. He was being managed as a case of a chronic ankle sprain. Meanwhile, he was referred to the department as radiology for MRI of the ankle could not be performed as the patient felt claustrophobic. The patient subsequently underwent a ^99mTc-MDP Bone scan. He was diagnosed to be suffering from sinus tarsi syndrome as it showed a characteristic pattern noted on ^99mTc-MDP Bone scintigraphy. This case report reveals the potential of SPECT-CT as an alternative in the evaluation of chronic ankle sprain to MRI in segment of cases where MRI is not performed due to various reasons.

What should we be careful of ankle arthroscopy?

PURPOSE

Ankle arthroscopy has been used as a standard tool by foot and ankle surgeons. To overcome the narrowness of ankle joint, a noninvasive distraction technique is used for the successful visualization in ankle arthroscopy. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and type of complications associated with ankle arthroscopy using a noninvasive distraction technique and to report a troublesome complication.

METHODS

We reviewed 514 patients' charts from 2003 to 2011. The same noninvasive distraction technique was used. Patients' demography, duration of follow-up, diagnoses, procedures, and complications related to ankle arthroscopy were analyzed.

RESULTS

There were 388 male and 126 female; mean age was 37.2 years; mean follow-up duration was 33 months. The diagnoses were osteochondral lesion of talus, chronic ankle instability, anterolateral soft tissue impingement syndrome, and anterior bony impingement. We performed arthroscopic synovectomy, osteochondral procedure, bony spur excision, and loose body removal. The mean time of arthroscopic procedure was 47 min. There were neurologic complications (eight cases), skin necrosis of posterior thigh (three cases), instrument breakage (two cases), and superficial wound infection (one case). All complications were well resolved. The total duration of distraction plus tourniquet inflation exceeded 120 min in the three cases of skin necrosis. Skin necrosis was deemed to be resulted from the long tourniquet time.

CONCLUSION

The noninvasive distraction technique is safe and effective for ankle arthroscopy. However, the distraction plus tourniquet requires attention because it can cause high pressure on posterior thigh resulting in soft tissue injury.

Arthroscopic Assessment of Syndesmotic Instability in the Sagittal Plane in a Cadaveric Model

BACKGROUND

Syndesmotic instability is multidirectional, occurring in the coronal, sagittal, and rotational planes. Despite the multitude of studies examining such instability in the coronal plane, other studies have highlighted that syndesmotic instability may instead be more evident in the sagittal plane. The aim of this study was to arthroscopically assess the degree of syndesmotic ligamentous injury necessary to precipitate fibular translation in the sagittal plane.

METHODS

Twenty-one above-knee cadaveric specimens underwent arthroscopic evaluation of the syndesmosis, first with all syndesmotic and ankle ligaments intact and subsequently with sequential sectioning of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (AITFL), the interosseous ligament (IOL), the posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (PITFL), and deltoid ligament (DL). In all scenarios, an anterior to posterior (AP) and a posterior to anterior (PA) fibular translation test were performed under a 100-N applied force. AP and PA sagittal plane translation of the distal fibula relative to the fixed tibial incisura was arthroscopically measured.

RESULTS

Compared with the intact ligamentous state, there was no difference in sagittal fibular translation when only 1 or 2 ligaments were transected. After transection of all the syndesmotic ligaments (AITFL, IOL, and PITFL) or after partial transection of the syndesmotic ligaments (AITFL, IOL) alongside the DL, fibular translation in the sagittal plane significantly increased as compared with the intact state (P values ranging from .041 to <.001). The optimal cutoff point to distinguish stable from unstable injuries was equal to 2 mm of fibular translation for the total sum of AP and PA translation (sensitivity 77.5%; specificity 88.9%).

CONCLUSION

Syndesmotic instability appears in the sagittal plane after injury to all 3 syndesmotic ligaments or after partial syndesmotic injury with concomitant deltoid ligament injury in this cadaveric model. The optimal cutoff point to arthroscopically distinguish stable from unstable injuries was 2 mm of total fibular translation.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These data can help surgeons arthroscopically distinguish between stable syndesmotic injuries and unstable ones that require syndesmotic stabilization.

Biological and behavioral markers of pain following nerve injury in humans

The evolution of peripheral and central changes following a peripheral nerve injury imply the onset of afferent signals that affect the brain. Changes to inflammatory processes may contribute to peripheral and central alterations such as altered psychological state and are not well characterized in humans. We focused on four elements that change peripheral and central nervous systems following ankle injury in 24 adolescent patients and 12 age-sex matched controls. Findings include (a) Changes in tibial, fibular, and sciatic nerve divisions consistent with neurodegeneration; (b) Changes within the primary motor and somatosensory areas as well as higher order brain regions implicated in pain processing; (c) Increased expression of fear of pain and pain reporting; and (d) Significant changes in cytokine profiles relating to neuroinflammatory signaling pathways. Findings address how changes resulting from peripheral nerve injury may develop into chronic neuropathic pain through changes in the peripheral and central nervous system.

The arthroscopic syndesmotic assessment tool can differentiate between stable and unstable ankle syndesmoses

PURPOSE

Patients with stable isolated injuries of the ankle syndesmosis can be treated conservatively, while unstable injuries require surgical stabilisation. Although evaluating syndesmotic injuries using ankle arthroscopy is becoming more popular, differentiating between stable and unstable syndesmoses remains a topic of on-going debate in the current literature. The purpose of this study was to quantify the degree of displacement of the ankle syndesmosis using arthroscopic measurements. The hypothesis was that ankle arthroscopy by measuring multiplanar fibular motion can determine syndesmotic instability.

METHODS

Arthroscopic assessment of the ankle syndesmosis was performed on 22 fresh above knee cadaveric specimens, first with all syndesmotic and ankle ligaments intact and subsequently with sequential sectioning of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, the interosseous ligament, the posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, and deltoid ligaments. In all scenarios, four loading conditions were considered under 100N of direct force: (1) unstressed, (2) a lateral hook test, (3) anterior to posterior (AP) translation test, and (4) posterior to anterior (PA) translation test. Anterior and posterior coronal plane tibiofibular translation, as well as AP and PA sagittal plane translation, were arthroscopically measured.

RESULTS

As additional ligaments of the syndesmosis were transected, all arthroscopic multiplanar translation measurements increased (p values ranging from p < 0.001 to p = 0.007). The following equation of multiplanar fibular motion relative to the tibia measured in millimeters: 0.76*AP sagittal translation + 0.82*PA sagittal translation + 1.17*anterior third coronal plane translation-0.20*posterior third coronal plane translation, referred to as the Arthroscopic Syndesmotic Assessment tool, was generated from our data. According to our results, an Arthroscopic Syndesmotic Assessment value equal or greater than 3.1 mm indicated an unstable syndesmosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This tool provides a more reliable opportunity in determining the presence of syndesmotic instability and can help providers decide whether syndesmosis injuries should be treated conservatively or operatively stabilized. The long-term usefulness of the tool will rest on whether an unstable syndesmosis correlates with acute or chronic clinical symptoms.

Return to Sports After Surgical Treatment of Osteochondral Defects of the Talus: A Systematic Review of 2347 Cases

BACKGROUND

Osteochondral defects (OCDs) of the talus are found subsequent to ankle sprains and ankle fractures. With many surgical treatment strategies available, there is no clear evidence on return-to-sport (RTS) times and rates.

PURPOSE

To summarize RTS times and rates for talar OCDs treated by different surgical techniques.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

The literature from January 1996 to November 2018 was screened, and identified studies were divided into 7 different surgical treatment groups. The RTS rate, with and without associated levels of activity, and the mean time to RTS were calculated per study. When methodologically possible, a simplified pooling method was used to combine studies within 1 treatment group. Study bias was assessed using the MINORS (Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies) scoring system.

RESULTS

A total of 61 studies including 2347 talar OCDs were included. The methodological quality of the studies was poor. There were 10 retrospective case series (RCSs) that investigated bone marrow stimulation in 339 patients, with a pooled mean rate of RTS at any level of 88% (95% CI, 84%-91%); 2 RCSs investigating internal fixation in 47 patients found a pooled RTS rate of 97% (95% CI, 85%-99%), 5 RCSs in which autograft transplantation was performed in 194 patients found a pooled RTS rate of 90% (95% CI, 86%-94%), and 3 prospective case series on autologous chondrocyte implantation in 39 patients found a pooled RTS rate of 87% (95% CI, 73%-94%). The rate of return to preinjury level of sports was 79% (95% CI, 70%-85%) for 120 patients after bone marrow stimulation, 72% (95% CI, 60%-83%) for 67 patients after autograft transplantation, and 69% (95% CI, 54%-81%) for 39 patients after autologous chondrocyte implantation. The mean time to RTS ranged from 13 to 26 weeks, although no pooling was possible for this outcome measure.

CONCLUSION

Different surgical treatment options for talar OCDs allow for adequate RTS times and rates. RTS rates decreased when considering patients' return to preinjury levels versus return at any level.

Surgical outcome in chronic syndesmotic injury: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

Chronic injuries of the distal tibio-fibular syndesmosis often present with non-specific clinical and radiographic findings. If chronic instability to the distal tibio-fibular syndesmosis is verified, various reconstruction options are available. The purpose of this article is to give a systematic review of current surgical treatment options in patients with chronic syndesmotic injury.

METHODS

Three major medical databases were searched from inception through December 12, 2017: PubMed, ScienceDirect, and SpringerLink. Studies were included if they were original research studies which assessed the outcome of patients treated surgically for chronic syndesmotic instability. Only studies written in English were considered. The following data were extracted from each study: number of patients and ankles included, average patients' age, gender, study design, preoperative examination, time between the initial injury and the operation, postoperative follow-up time, operative technique, complication rates, and clinical outcome. The modified Coleman Score was used to assess the methodologic quality of the included studies.

RESULTS

Seventeen (17) studies were included. All studies were retrospective or prospective case series. Each study was performed at a single center. In general, good functional outcomes and low complication rates were reported. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle (AOFAS) score was most frequently used outcome tool to measure postoperative outcomes. The quality of the included studies was overall satisfactory.

CONCLUSIONS

A few studies have reported on the operative outcomes after treating chronic syndesmotic instability. Several different techniques were used to treat this problem. The quality of current studies is overall satisfactory but could be improved with larger patient numbers and prospective analysis. Recognition of this clinical entity as an identifiable and treatable cause of ankle pain requires vigilant clinical investigation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV; Systematic Review of Level IV Studies.

Return to Sport After Ankle Syndesmotic Injury: A Systematic Review

Context:

Ankle syndesmotic injuries present a significant challenge for athletes due to prolonged disability and recovery periods. The optimal management of these injuries and rates of return to sport in athletes remains unclear.

Objective:

The purpose of this study was to evaluate return to sport for athletes after ankle syndesmotic injuries.

Data Source:

The electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PubMed were searched for relevant studies from database inception to January 15, 2017, and pertinent data were abstracted.

Study Selection:

Only studies reporting return-to-sport rates after ankle syndesmotic injuries were included.

Study Design:

Systematic review.

Level of Evidence:

Level 4.

Data Extraction:

Two reviewers extracted data from the included studies, which were stored in a standardized collection form (Microsoft Excel). Recorded data included demographics (eg, author, year of publication, study design), descriptive statistics (eg, patient age, percentage male, number of athletes, sample size), and outcomes (eg, time to return to sport, proportion of those who returned to sport, the self-reported questionnaire the Olerud-Molander Ankle Score).

Results:

A total of 10 studies and 312 patients with ankle syndesmotic injuries were included in this systematic review. The rate of return to preinjury or any injury level of sport after ankle syndesmotic injuries was 93.8% ± 1.2% and 97.6% ± 1.5%, respectively, for the corresponding 7 and 3 studies that reported this characteristic. The mean time to return to sport was 46.4 days (range, 15.4-70 days), with 55.2 ± 15.8 and 41.7 ± 9.8 days for operative and nonoperative management, respectively.

Conclusion:

This systematic review found a high rate of return to any as well as preinjury level of sport after ankle syndesmotic injury in both operative and nonoperative treatment groups. However, further high-level studies are required to compare operative and nonoperative treatment groups associated with return to sport after ankle syndesmotic injury.

Surgical Treatment of Subfibular Ossicle in Children: A Retrospective Study of 36 Patients with Functional Instability

BACKGROUNDS

To evaluate the surgical management of a symptomatic subfibular ossicle after severe ankle sprain with functional instability and pain sequelae in children.

METHODS

We analyzed 36 patients complaining of functional instability without laxity, 1 year after an ankle inversion trauma associated with the observation of a subfibular ossicle. We systematically suggested the open excision of the residual ossicles, followed by 6 weeks of immobilization and proprioceptive physiotherapy. Seventeen of them, constituting the "resection" group accepted this surgical approach. The remaining 19 patients, the "control" group, received only rehabilitative care. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle pain and function score was evaluated in both groups.

RESULTS

The mean latest follow-up was 4 years and 4 months (range, 1 y 8 mo to 14 y 7 mo). A significant improvement of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score was observed and was significantly higher in the resection group with a mean gain of 31 points (SD=31.8), versus 7 points (SD=7) in the control group (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that in the absence of objective laxity, excision of the os subfibulare appears as a simple and effective technique in the treatment of posttraumatic functional instability and ankle pain.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV-retrospective case-control study.

The Broken "Ring of Fire": A New Radiological Sign as Predictor of Syndesmosis Injury?

Background:

Subcircumferential periosteal edema above the ankle joint is frequently present on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with syndesmosis injuries but has not been previously reported. Fluid height within the interosseous membrane also has not previously been shown to be associated with syndesmosis injury severity.

Purpose:

To investigate whether a new sign on MRI and measurement of the length of fluid within the interosseous membrane above the ankle may be used to enable identification of a syndesmosis injury and allow differentiation from lateral ligament injury.

Study Design:

Cohort study (diagnosis); Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

Three groups of patients (those with an isolated syndesmosis injury [SI group], isolated lateral ligament injury [LLI group], and no injury [NI group]) who had an ankle MRI for another reason were identified from a patient notes database and the MRI scans retrieved. The scans were anonymized and independently assessed by 8 clinicians (surgeons and radiologists) who were blinded to the diagnosis. The maximum length of fluid above the ankle within the intraosseous membrane was measured for each patient. The presence or absence of distal anterior, lateral, and posterior tibial periosteal edema was recorded (broken “ring of fire”).

Results:

Measurement of the length of fluid above the ankle had excellent intraobserver reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.93-0.99) but poor interobserver reliability. Fluid extended higher in both the LLI group (P = .0043) and SI group (P = .0058) than the NI group, but there was no significant difference between the LLI and SI groups (P = .3735), indicating that this measurement cannot differentiate between the injuries. The presence of the broken “ring of fire” around the distal tibia was significantly more frequent in the SI group when compared with both LLI and NI groups (P < .00001). The sensitivity of this sign is 49%, but when present, this sign has a 98% specificity for syndesmosis injury.

Conclusion:

The presence of tibial subcircumferential periosteal edema 4 to 6 cm above the ankle joint (the “ring of fire”) is highly suggestive of a syndesmosis injury. This new radiological sign can assist with early identification of such injuries. The measurement of height of fluid above the ankle within the interosseous membrane is variable and cannot differentiate severe ankle sprains from high ankle sprains involving the syndesmosis.

Stable Versus Unstable Grade II High Ankle Sprains: A Prospective Study Predicting the Need for Surgical Stabilization and Time to Return to Sports

PURPOSE

To investigate grade II syndesmosis injuries in athletes and identify factors important in differentiating stable from dynamically unstable ankle sprains and those associated with a longer time to return to sports.

METHODS

Sixty-four athletes with an isolated syndesmosis injury (without fracture) were prospectively assessed, with a mean follow-up period of 37 months (range, 24 to 66 months). Those with an associated deltoid ligament injury or osteochondral lesion were included. Those whose injuries were considered stable (grade IIa) were treated conservatively with a boot and rehabilitation. Those whose injuries were clinically unstable underwent arthroscopy, and if instability was confirmed (grade IIb), the syndesmosis was stabilized. Clinical and magnetic resonance imaging assessments of injury to individual ligaments were recorded, along with time to return to play. A power analysis estimated that each group would need 28 patients.

RESULTS

All athletes returned to the same level of professional sport. The 28 patients with grade IIa injuries returned at a mean of 45 days (range, 23 to 63 days) compared with 64 days (range, 27 to 104 days) for those with grade IIb injuries (P < .0001). There was a highly significant relationship between clinical and magnetic resonance imaging assessments of ligament injury (anterior tibiofibular ligament [ATFL], anterior-inferior tibiofibular ligament [AITFL], and deltoid ligament, P < .0001). Instability was 9.5 times as likely with a positive squeeze test and 11 times as likely with a deltoid injury. Combined injury to the anterior-inferior tibiofibular ligament and deltoid ligament was associated with a delay in return to sports. Concomitant injury to the ATFL indicated a different mechanism of injury-the syndesmosis is less likely to be unstable and is associated with an earlier return to sports.

CONCLUSIONS

A positive squeeze test and injury to the ATFL and deltoid ligament are important factors in differentiating stable from dynamically unstable grade II injuries and may be used to identify which athletes may benefit from early arthroscopic assessment and stabilization. They may also be important in predicting the time frame for athletes' expected return to play.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, prospective comparative study.

Arthroscopic Assessment of Intra-Articular Lesion after Surgery for Rotational Ankle Fracture

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to report findings of exploratory arthroscopic assessment performed in conjunction with removal of internal fixation device placed in the initial surgery for rotational ankle fracture.

METHODS

A total of 53 patients (33 male, 20 female) who underwent surgery for rotational ankle fracture between November 2002 and February 2008 were retrospectively reviewed. All patients gave consent to the exploratory arthroscopic surgery for the removal of internal fixation devices placed in the initial surgery. Lauge-Hansen classification system of ankle fractures was assessed for all patients. Intra-articular lesions (osteochondral lesion, loose body, and fibrosis) were evaluated via ankle arthroscopy. Comparative analysis was then performed between radiological classification of ankle fracture/patient's symptoms and arthroscopic findings.

RESULTS

Lauge-Hansen classification system of ankle fractures included supination-external rotation type (n = 35), pronation-external rotation type (n = 9), and pronation-abduction type (n = 9). A total of 33 patients exhibited symptoms of pain or discomfort while walking whereas 20 exhibited no symptoms. Arthroscopic findings included abnormal findings around the syndesmosis area (n = 35), intra-articular fibrosis (n = 51), osteochondral lesions of the talus (n = 33), loose bodies (n = 6), synovitis (n = 13), and anterior bony impingement syndrome (n = 3). Intra-articular fibrosis was seen in 31 of symptomatic patients (93.9%). Pain or discomfort with activity caused by soft tissue impingement with meniscus-like intra-articular fibrosis were found in 19 patients. There was statistical significance (p = 0.02) between symptoms (pain and discomfort) and the findings of meniscus-like fibrosis compared to the group without any symptom.

CONCLUSIONS

Arthroscopic examination combined with treatment of intra-articular fibrosis arising from ankle fracture surgery may help improve surgical outcomes.

Trends in Ankle Arthroscopy and Its Use in the Management of Pathologic Conditions of the Lateral Ankle in the United States: A National Database Study

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate current trends in ankle arthroscopy across time, sex, age, and region of the United States as well as the use of ankle arthroscopy in the management of lateral ankle instability.

METHODS

Patients who underwent ankle arthroscopy and those who underwent ankle arthroscopy and lateral ankle ligament repair or peroneal retinacular repair from 2007 through 2011 were identified using the PearlDiver national database. These searches yielded volumes of unique patients, sex and age distribution, and regional volumes of patients. Χ-square linear-by-linear association analysis was used for comparisons, with P < .05 considered significant.

RESULTS

We identified 15,366 ankle arthroscopy procedures in the database from 2007 to 2011. Over the 5-year study period, there was a significant increase in the overall number of ankle arthroscopies being performed, from 2,814 in 2007 to 3,314 in 2011 (P < .0001). Female patients had ankle arthroscopy more frequently than did male patients (P = .027). The majority of patients who had ankle arthroscopy were between the ages of 30 and 49 years. The use of ankle arthroscopy during lateral ligament repair procedures increased from 37.2% in 2007 to 43.7% in 2011 (P < .0001). The incidence of combined ankle arthroscopy and peroneal tendon retinacular repair increased 50%, from 2.8/100 ankle arthroscopies in 2007 to 4.2/100 ankle arthroscopies in 2011 (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of ankle arthroscopy increased significantly from 2007 to 2011, outpacing shoulder, knee, and elbow arthroscopy. Ankle arthroscopy was performed more frequently in female patients and most commonly in patients younger than 50 years. The use of ankle arthroscopy in the surgical management of lateral ankle instability also increased significantly. The incidence of concomitant ankle arthroscopy and lateral ligament repair increased significantly, as did the incidence of concomitant ankle arthroscopy and repair of peroneal tendon subluxation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, therapeutic case series.

[Chronic ankle joint instability: in unrecognized distal rupture of the syndosmosis and malunion of the distal fibula]

BACKGROUND

It is often difficult in the acute phase to diagnose a lesion of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis. If this lesion is overlooked, the patient will develop an incongruity of the upper ankle joint with a pathological external rotation of the talus. The risk of a possible premature arthritis is clearly increased.

OBJECTIVES

In this case study a distal rupture of the syndesmosis in a young patient was overlooked in the initial diagnostic work-up.

METHODS

A search of the relevant literature and a case report.

RESULTS

In the case described the shortened fibula and chronic instability of the tibiofibular syndesmosis were repaired with a lengthening and derotational osteotomy and reconstruction using the gracilis muscle tendon. Through this method an exact reconstruction of the normal anatomy could be achieved.

CONCLUSION

Posttraumatic misalignment in the ankle joint is associated with a high risk of secondary degenerative lesions. In cases with suspicion of a syndesmosis lesion, confirmation of the diagnosis is imperative so as to perform an anatomic repositioning and reconstruction of stability.

An update on the evaluation and treatment of syndesmotic injuries

INTRODUCTION

Injuries to the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis are frequent and continue to generate controversy.

METHODS

The majority of purely ligamentous injuries ("high ankle sprains") is not sassociated with a latent or frank tibiofibular diastasis and may be treated with an extended protocol of physical therapy. Relevant instability of the syndesmosis with diastasis results from rupture of two or more ligaments that require surgical stabilization. Syndesmosis disruptions are commonly associated with bony avulsions or malleolar fractures. Treatment consists in anatomic reduction of the distal fibula into the corresponding incisura of the distal tibia and stable fixation. Proposed means of fixation are refixation of bony syndesmotic avulsions, one or two tibiofibular screws and suture button. There is no consensus on how long to maintain fixation. Both syndesmotic screws and suture buttons need to be removed if symptomatic.

RESULTS/COMPLICATIONS

The most frequent complication is syndesmotic malreduction and may be minimized with open reduction and intraoperative 3D scanning. Other complications include hardware failure, heterotopic ossification, tibiofibular synostosis, chronic instability and posttraumatic arthritis.

CONCLUSION

The single most important prognostic factor is anatomic reduction of the distal fibula into the tibial incisura.

Injuries to the ankle syndesmosis

➤ Despite being common, syndesmotic injuries are challenging to diagnose and treat.➤ Anatomic reduction of the ankle syndesmosis is critical for good clinical outcomes.➤ Intraoperative three-dimensional radiography and direct syndesmotic visualization can improve rates of anatomic reduction.➤ The so-called gold-standard syndesmotic screw fixation is being brought increasingly into question as new fixation techniques emerge.➤ Syndesmotic screw removal remains controversial, but may allow spontaneous correction of malreductions.

Safety of ankle arthroscopy for the treatment of anterolateral soft-tissue impingement

PURPOSE

To quantify the overall incidence of complications related to arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral soft-tissue ankle impingement.

METHODS

Electronic databases and relevant peer-reviewed sources, including OvidSP/Medline (http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com) and Google Scholar, were systematically searched for the terms "anterolateral" AND "ankle" AND "impingement" OR "soft-tissue impingement" AND "arthroscopy." In addition, we manually searched common American and European (including British) orthopaedic and podiatric scientific literature for relevant articles. Studies were eligible for inclusion only if they included the following: a standard 2-portal anterior arthroscopic approach, a minimum mean follow-up of 12 months, and detailed descriptions of all complications encountered.

RESULTS

After we considered all the potentially eligible articles, 15 (28.8%) met our inclusion criteria for the study. There were a total of 396 patients (397 ankles), with 16 total complications (4%), 3 (0.8%) of which were major. The weighted mean patient age was 31.2 years, and the weighted mean follow-up was 33.7 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this systematic review showed an overall incidence of complications of 4%. The complications were categorically divided into major and minor complications, with a very low incidence of major complications (0.8%) and an acceptably low incidence of minor complications (3.3%). On the basis of these findings, arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral ankle soft-tissue impingement is a very safe procedure when indicated.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, systematic review of Level IV studies.

The role of arthroscopy in the treatment of functional instability of the ankle

BACKGROUND

Ankle sprains are common, the majority resolving with functional rehabilitation. Some patients are left with symptoms of functional instability (FI). Ankle arthroscopy in those with symptoms of FI is not well covered in the literature. Our aim was to assess its role in FI of the ankle.

METHODS

Retrospective case note analysis of patients with FI following an ankle sprain from 2005 to 2007. All underwent arthroscopy, provided mechanical instability was excluded (EUA and stress X-rays), and there were no signs of soft tissue impingement. These patients had exhausted all options of conservative therapy.

RESULTS

Seventy-seven patients with a mean age of 38.1: five had true mechanical instability and were excluded. 72 underwent arthroscopy: 67 (93.1%) had significant amounts of scar tissue needing debridement, most commonly in the antero-lateral corner (58.3%). 52 patients improved (72.2%) at a minimum of 6 months follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Our study supports the role of ankle arthroscopy in the treatment of FI following trauma. It should be considered when conservative measures have failed.

Syndesmosis injuries of the ankle

Ankle syndesmosis injuries are relatively frequent in sports, especially skiing, ice hockey, and soccer, accounting for 1 %-18 % of all ankle sprains. The evolution is unpredictable: When missed, repeated episodes of ankle instability may predispose to early degenerative changes, and frank osteoarthritis may ensue. Diagnosis is clinical and radiological, but arthroscopy may provide a definitive response, allowing one to address secondary injuries to bone and cartilage. Obvious diastasis needs to be reduced and fixed operatively, whereas less severe injuries are controversial. Nonoperative treatment may be beneficial, but it entails long rehabilitation. In professional athletes, more aggressive surgical treatment is warranted.

Ankle impingement: a review of multimodality imaging approach

Ankle impingement is defined as entrapment of an anatomic structure that leads to pain and decreased range of motion of the ankle and can be classified as either soft tissue or osseous (Bassett et al. in J Bone Joint Surg Am 72:55-59, 1990). The impingement syndromes of the ankle are a group of painful disorders that limit full range of movement. Symptoms are due to compression of soft-tissues or osseous structures during particular movements (Ogilvie-Harris et al. in Arthroscopy 13:564-574, 1997). Osseous impingement can result from spur formation along the anterior margin of the distal tibia and talus or as a result of a prominent posterolateral talar process, the os trigonum. Soft-tissue impingement usually results from scarring and fibrosis associated with synovial, capsular, or ligamentous injury. Soft-tissue impingement most often occurs in the anterolateral gutter, the medial ankle, or in the region of the syndesmosis (Van den Bekerom and Raven in Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 15:465-471, 2007). The main impingement syndromes are anterolateral, anterior, anteromedial, posterior, and posteromedial impingement. These conditions arise from initial ankle injuries, which, in the subacute or chronic situation, lead to development of abnormal osseous and soft-tissue thickening within the ankle joint. The relative contributions of the osseous and soft-tissue abnormalities are variable, but whatever component is dominant there is physical impingement and painful limitation of ankle movement. Conventional radiography is usually the first imaging technique performer and allows assessment of any potential bone abnormality, particularly in anterior and posterior impingement. Computed tomography (CT) and isotope bone scanning have been largely superseded by magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. MR imaging can demonstrate osseous and soft-tissue edema in anterior or posterior impingement. MR imaging is the most useful imaging modality in evaluating suspected soft-tissue impingement or in excluding other ankle pathology such as an osteochondral lesion of the talus. MR imaging can reveal evidence of previous ligamentous injury and also can demonstrate thickened synovium, fibrosis, or adjacent reactive soft-tissue edema. Studies of conventional MR imaging have produced conflicting sensitivities and specificities in assessment of anterolateral impingement. CT and MR arthrographic techniques allow the most accurate assessment of the capsular recesses, albeit with important limitations in diagnosis of clinical impingement syndromes. In the majority of cases, ankle impingement is treated with conservative measures, with surgical debridement via arthroscopy or an open procedure reserved for patients who have refractory symptoms. In this article, we describe the clinical and potential imaging features, for the four main impingement syndromes of the ankle: anterolateral, anterior, anteromedial, posterior, and posteromedial impingement.

Treatment of chronic syndesmotic injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to systematically review and meta-analyse the available literature on the treatment of chronic syndesmotic injuries of the ankle.

METHODS

A systematic review of the PubMed/MEDLINE and EMBASE databases was conducted in August 2012 utilizing the keywords (treatment OR intervention) AND (injury OR sprain OR rupture) AND (syndesmosis OR syndesmotic OR "high ankle" OR "anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament" OR AITFL OR "posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament" OR PITFL OR tibiofibular diastasis). Studies that reported the outcomes of the surgical treatment of chronic syndesmotic injury were included in our review. Chronic was defined as symptoms longer than 6 months. Meta-analysis based on random-effects models was performed to pool the rates of success for different treatment methods.

RESULTS

The search yielded 416 publications from PubMed/MEDLINE and 473 publications from EMBASE. After abstract and full-text review, 15 articles were included in this review. Treatment methods were placed into three broad surgical treatment categories: screw fixation, arthrodesis and arthroscopic debridement. The most common treatment strategy employed was screw fixation. The pooled rates of success for screw fixation, arthrodesis and arthroscopic debridement were 87.9, 79.4 and 78.7 %, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The current evidence on the treatment of chronic syndesmosis injuries in the ankle is limited to prospective and retrospective case series. The pooled success rates for screw fixation, arthrodesis and arthroscopic debridement each exceeded 78 %. Future high-level studies are required to discern the most appropriate treatment strategy(ies) for chronic syndesmotic injuries of the ankle.

Anterior fibrous bundle: a cause of residual pain and restrictive plantar flexion following ankle sprain

PURPOSE

To describe anterior fibrous bundle as an intra-articular residual disorder following ankle sprain.

METHODS

Between January 1998 and January 2009, we performed arthroscopy on 10 patients (7 males, 3 females; median age, 25 years; age range, 17-43 years) who had the uncommon problem of anterior ankle pain accompanied by restriction of plantar flexion following an ankle sprain. Pre-operative magnetic resonance imaging revealed osteochondral lesions (OCLs) of the talar dome in 3 patients, but no other findings that could explain restricted plantar flexion. All patients underwent arthroscopy for investigation and treatment of the cause of symptoms, and the 3 patients with OCL underwent additional arthroscopic drilling. Outcome was measured using the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale (AOFAS) score, Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for pain and active plantar flexion angle.

RESULTS

In all patients, an anterior fibrous bundle was confirmed under arthroscopic investigation as the cause of symptoms and was resected arthroscopically. Median AOFAS and VAS scores improved significantly from 65 (range 61-82) and 70 (range 50-85) pre-operatively to 95 (range 84-100) and 4 (range 0-15) at final follow-up, respectively (p < 0.001). In addition, median active plantar flexion angle improved significantly from 40° (range 35-40) pre-operatively to 55° (range 45-55), (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

An anterior fibrous bundle is one of the intra-articular residual disorders after ankle sprain that can cause restriction of plantar flexion.

Management of syndesmosis injuries in the elite athlete

This article reviews the basics and evidence base thus far on syndesmosis injuries, focusing on its management in the elite sporting population. A syndesmosis injury or "high ankle sprain" is a significant injury, especially in the elite athlete. Among all ankle sprains, the syndesmotic injury is most predictive of persistent symptoms in the athletic population. Late diagnosis of unstable syndesmosis injuries leads to a poor outcome and delayed return to sports. A high index of suspicion and an understanding of the mechanism of injury is required to ensure an early diagnosis. Incomplete/inaccurate reduction leads to a poor outcome.

Syndesmosis and deltoid ligament injuries in the athlete

PURPOSE

Injury to the syndesmosis and deltoid ligament is less common than lateral ligament trauma but can lead to significant time away from sport and prolonged rehabilitation. This literature review will discuss both syndesmotic and deltoid ligament injuries without fracture in the professional athlete.

METHODS

A narrative review was performed using PUBMED, OVID, MEDLINE and EMBASE using the key words syndesmosis, injury, deltoid, ankle ligaments, and athlete. Articles related to the topic were included and reviewed.

RESULTS

The incidence of syndesmotic injury ranges from 1 to 18 % of ankle sprains. This may be underreported and is an often missed injury as clinical examination is generally not specific. Both MRI and ultrasonography have high sensitivities and specificities in diagnosing injury. Arthroscopy may confirm the diagnosis, and associated intra-articular pathology can be treated at the same time as surgical stabilization. Significant deltoid ligament injury in isolation is rare, there is usually associated trauma. Major disruption of both deep and superficial parts can lead to ankle dysfunction. Repair of the ligament following ankle fracture is not necessary, but there is little literature to guide the management of deltoid ruptures in isolation or in association with syndesmotic and lateral ligament injuries in the professional athlete.

CONCLUSION

Management of syndesmotic injury is determined by the grade and associated injury around the ankle. Grade I injuries are treated non-surgically in a boot with a period of non-weight bearing. Treatment of Grade II and III injuries is controversial with little literature to guide management. Athletes may return to training and play sooner if the syndesmosis is surgically stabilized. For deltoid ligament injury, grade I and II sprains should be treated non-operatively. Unstable grade III injuries with associated injury to the lateral ligaments or the syndesmosis may benefit from operative repair.

Clinical presentation and manual therapy for lower quadrant musculoskeletal conditions

Chronic lower quadrant injuries constitute a significant percentage of the musculoskeletal cases seen by clinicians. While impairments may vary, pain is often the factor that compels the patient to seek medical attention. Traumatic injury from sport is one cause of progressive chronic joint pain, particularly in the lower quarter. Recent studies have demonstrated the presence of peripheral and central sensitization mechanisms in different lower quadrant pain syndromes, such as lumbar spine related leg pain, osteoarthritis of the knee, and following acute injuries such as lateral ankle sprain and anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Proper management of lower quarter conditions should include assessment of balance and gait as increasing pain and chronicity may lead to altered gait patterns and falls. In addition, quantitative sensory testing may provide insight into pain mechanisms which affect management and prognosis of musculoskeletal conditions. Studies have demonstrated analgesic effects and modulation of spinal excitability with use of manual therapy techniques, with clinical outcomes of improved gait and functional ability. This paper will discuss the evidence which supports the use of manual therapy for lower quarter musculoskeletal dysfunction.

Incidence of talar dome lesions with concomitant peroneal tendon pathologic features: a magnetic resonance imaging evaluation

Few studies have evaluated the incidence of talar dome lesions and injuries to the peroneal tendons occurring concomitantly. The purpose of our research was to evaluate the incidence of osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) with peroneal tendon pathologic features according to the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings. A database search was conducted in the Department of Radiology at the Western Pennsylvania Hospital and Forbes Regional Campus for all MRI examinations ordered by attending physicians of the Department of Foot and Ankle Surgery from 2008 to 2010. A total of 810 MRI reports were reviewed, of which 198 contained a diagnosis of peroneal tendon pathologic features (e.g., tenosynovitis, split tears) or OLT (i.e., chondral, osteochondral, subchondral edema, cystic changes), or both. MRI scans were then reviewed to confirm the report findings and findings not identified in the report. A total of 76 patients were identified as having an OLT. Of these 76 patients, 49 had associated peroneal tendon pathologic features. MRI evaluation revealed that 49 (65.3%) of the 76 patients with a talar dome lesion had concomitant peroneal pathologic features. Talar dome lesions with concomitant tears/tendinopathy of the peroneus brevis were associated in 14.6%. The incidence of an OLT with tears/tenosynovitis of the peroneus longus was 10.6%, because tears/tendinopathy of both peroneal tendons was present in 18.6%. Tenosynovitis of the brevis and longus were seen in 21.3% of those with an OLT. Our findings suggest the need for an increased level of suspicion for injuries to the lateral ankle ligaments, peroneal tendon complex, and ankle joint when evaluating a patient with ankle instability and chronic pain.

Correlating MRI findings with disability in syndesmotic sprains of NFL players

BACKGROUND

Syndesmotic sprains may be a significant source of missed playing time, especially in football players. Advanced imaging is frequently used to confirm the clinical diagnosis. Our purpose was to evaluate the prognostic ability of MRI in predicting time of disability.

METHODS

Training room records from 1993 to 2007 for three National Football League teams were reviewed. Forty-three players were diagnosed with syndesmotic ankle injuries and underwent radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging. A blinded musculoskeletal radiologist interpreted all images. Players with fractures were excluded.

RESULTS

Thirty-six professional football players were included in the final analysis. Twenty-three players had a positive squeeze test which was correlated with increased missed practices (p = 0.012) and increased missed games (p ≤ 0.01). The average number of games missed was 3.3 (range, 0 to 20) and the average number of practices missed was 16.7 (range, 0 to 114). Four players had isolated injury to the anterior tibio-fibular ligament (AITFL) (MRI Grade I). Five players had injury to the AITFL and interosseous ligament (MRI Grade II). Twenty-four players sustained injury to the AITFL, interosseous ligament, and posterior inferior tibio-fibular ligament (MRI Grade III). Three players had Grade III injuries with additional injury to the deltoid ligament (MRI Grade IV). Increasing grade of injury was positively correlated with increased number of missed games (p = 0.033) and missed practices (p = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

MRI can be useful to help delineate the injury pattern and associated injuries, and may be useful in predicting time of disability using a grading system. Positive squeeze test can also be useful to determine prognosis.